Susan Bandias and Anthony Gilding

Introduction

Online social networks, such as Facebook and Twitter, have become a common part of many people’s lives. It is estimated that Facebook will break the billion user barrier in 2012, and Twitter already claims to have over 100 million users (Head, 2011). Logging on to a personal Facebook page, or leaving a comment on the ‘wall’ of a friend, or of family members, is a daily activity for many people, especially those of the younger generations. Essentially, the use of social media has become so pervasive that it is not unusual to see Twitter messages, links to Facebook pages and blogs displayed during live television broadcasts. In addition, computer-mediated engagement is so prevalent that we are now entering what has been described as ‘the era of social networking, collective intelligence, participation, collaborative creation, and borderless distribution’ (Warr, 2008:1).

As has become apparent, the use of social media has added a new dimension to the old adage: ‘Who you know is often more important than what you know.’ Also, networking with current and prospective clients, colleagues and stakeholders via Internet-based Web 2.0 applications is rapidly becoming a business tool of choice. For instance, Web-based applications that support the creation and exchange of usergenerated content have become an integral aspect of the way business is conducted, and how professional contacts are created and maintained. As Kinzey (2010) pointed out, the social capital accrued through the use of social media can enhance business activities, as well as the public reputation of individuals, groups and organisations.

Universities have also been enthusiastic adopters of Facebook and other social media tools. In this educational environment, social media is used to reach current, former and prospective students, plus engage and inform the broader community of university activity. The use of social media is also making inroads into the traditional curricula of many disciplines. Consequently, and rapidly, it is becoming an integral aspect of the business and commerce curricula in many higher education institutions.

Social capital and social media

Social capital is an elusive concept, and there is considerable debate as to what actually is meant by the term. According to Stone and Hughes (2000), the essence of social capital is quality social relations. Winter (2000:1) suggests that social capital encompasses ‘social relations of mutual benefit characterised by norms of trust and reciprocity’. Social capital, according to Grootaert (1998:1), is ‘the glue that holds societies together and without which there can be no economic growth or human well-being’. Putnam (1995) identifies social capital as the features of social life that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2004:5) and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2001:1) define social capital as ‘networks, together with shared norms, values and understandings which facilitate cooperation within or among groups’. According to the ABS (2004), the OECD definition of social capital is emerging as a common basis for international comparability. Consequently, this paper has also adopted the ABS and OECD definition.

The positive benefits of quality social relations that constitute social capital are reported to have implications for a range of areas, including education, social and economic development, as well as social and civic stability (Bandias, 2010; Cox, 1996; Fukuyuma, 1999; Putnam, 1995). Social capital has also been linked to outcomes, such as broadening business and employment opportunities (Benson et al., 2010:21; Warr, 2008).

It is noteworthy that the relationship between information and communications technology (ICT) and social capital is widely acknowledged (European Commission, 2004; Huijboom, 2007; Lee and Lee, 2010; Sinanan, 2008; Uslaner, 2000). As noted by the European Commission (2004:9), ‘the use of ICT can bring [about] fundamental changes to civil society and, therefore, social capital. In fact, we are already witnessing new emerging forms of … organisations that would simply not exist without ICT.’ In a business context, the growth of online social media, for instance, is becoming an important means of job seeking, connecting with consumers, building business intelligence, marketing new and existing products, and engaging consumers on a personal level.

There are numerous definitions of social media. Broadly defined, social media is the term used to describe a range of online tools that facilitate individuals and groups of people to connect and interact, create and share (Chrisg.com, 2011; Odden, 2011; Schottmuller, 2011). The related tools include Twitter, blogs, wikis, discussion forums, online conferencing software, YouTube and social networking sites, such as Facebook and LinkedIn. In an academic context, social media may also include (but is not limited to) synchronous online classrooms, wikis, blogs, discussion forums and file sharing.

While social capital is a theoretical construct, and social media is a term used to describe a range on online networking tools, the two frameworks overlap, and the nexus is in building relationships of mutual benefit. Even so, despite the relative ‘newness’ of social media, its intrinsic social appeal has sparked a rapid evolution and relatively widespread adoption. Social media, for example, is employed across a range of areas, including recreation, public relations, marketing and commerce. It is also gaining rapid acceptance in academia, both as a teaching and learning tool, and as part of the mainstream curricula. As Mackay (2010) acknowledged:

Students entering university studies today have grown up with access to computers and the Internet and have years of experience in using online social networks to make connections and share information. Now that businesses are realizing the commercial potential of these social media networks, the universities need to teach their students how to turn their knowledge of these new media channels to profitable use.

Social networks within business

Historically, the adoption of new technologies has had a profound influence on business practices (Wilson, 2008). As Subramoniam (2008) noted, tapping the advantages of developments in ICT has become the main agenda for the re-engineering of business processes. In recent years, the advantages of using social media in organisational processes has been reported to include ‘shared understanding of organisational roles, increased sense of group cohesiveness, improved work processes, and improved professional and personal ties among employees’ (Sinanan, 2008:4). The increased use of teams in organisations has also been encouraged by computer-mediated communication technologies. Thereby, virtual or networked teams have changed how organisational members collect and distribute data, as well as altering the dynamics and relationships between organisational members (Berry, 2011).

Consider, for example, the use of social media to leverage consumer sentiment, and gain brand and market insights, can also provide corporations with a valuable competitive edge. From a customer perspective, consumer-generated media, according to Blackshaw (2011:209), is:

As is apparent, consumers are no longer passive observers in today’s marketplace of ideas and commerce. Armed with a suite of tools, resources and technologies, including the aforementioned Facebook, Twitter, discussion forums and blogs, consumers are participating in, and reshaping, the business landscape and marketplace.

Certainly, the inherent networking nature of social media assists in the development of relationships between people and organisations. Social networks allow people to construct an awareness of others, and engage in a dialogue. In a commercial sense, social media facilitates the establishment of trust in others and with organisations. However, the concepts of information access, sharing, awareness, trust and engagement apply not only to so-called ‘good’ business practices, but also to ‘effective’ learning. The skills required to use social media overlap with and expand on the skills required in social situations, in the workplace and in the learning environment.

Social media in the curriculum

The online learning environment is reported to be the fastest-growing educational context for adult learners (Rossi, 2010:3). Consequently, for a significant number of students, their learner–learner interaction and knowledge construction occurs in a context that includes the use of social media. Online learning environments offer an educational domain that is unique in terms of the potential for interaction, participation and collaboration. Among the benefits to be derived from collaborative learning is the development of critical and problem-solving skills in a social atmosphere where learners can share, consider and challenge one another’s ideas (Rossi, 2010:4).

It is widely acknowledged that students have different expectations of higher education, different learning styles and study practices (Baird and Fisher, 2005:5; Van Raaij and Schepers, 2008). Today, students use the web to create ‘self-paced, customised, on-demand learning pathways that includes multiple forms of interactive, social, and self-publishing media tools’ (Baird and Fisher, 2005:5). The use of social media can also create a unique learning experience by enabling students to engage in networks that extend beyond the traditional confines of the classroom.

Technology tools, such as conferencing software, blogs, Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds, podcasts and wikis, provide simple-to-use web-based tools for asynchronous and synchronous collaboration and interaction. Interaction, or shared events between learners and teaching staff, is a decisive factor in improving the quality of both online and traditional learning. As Head (2011) noted, the use of social media to improve the student learning experience is the key driver of its adoption by the higher education sector.

Research indicates that social media is used as an instructional tool across a range of education disciplines. The integration of social media in communication, media and literacy studies (Hull and Stornaiuolo, 2010), as well as disciplines as diverse as library studies, medicine, commerce and technology (Cain, 2011; Gilman and Turner, 2001; Morley, 2011), is a reflection of the pervasiveness of social media in contemporary society, and the growing acceptance of its veracity as an important pedagogical tool.

In the area of business education, the adoption of social media in the curriculum is also driven by the need to mirror its contemporary use in the world of work. While social media has an obvious role in the teaching and learning of marketing, its ubiquitous application and widespread adoption in the workplace has increased its relevance and use in the areas of management, accounting, hospitality, tourism and economics. According to Mackay (2010), the increasing use of social media in business has created a strong demand at the hiring end for candidates skilled in its use. Consequently:

Social media in business education

The most common forms of social media used in business education include wikis, discussion forums, blogs, Twitter and synchronous collaborative learning environments. Each of these social media tools differ in their intent, their level of interaction and their pedagogical application. However, they all assist in the development of work-readiness skills, technological competence, communication skills, online literacy skills and collaboration skills, as well as the skills necessary for managing information and communications technology.

The use of online discussion forums is one of the ‘older’ applications of educational technology. ‘Bulletin boards’, as they were called in the early 1990s when first used in education, have become a popular and widely applied learning tool. As a mature technology their use ‘has informed online learning and development practice across many levels from school pupils to postgraduate research students, and especially in online and blended learning in higher and professional education’ (Salmon et al., 2010:170). Over time, bulletin boards have evolved to incorporate the use of graphics, audio, images and video. They have also become a forum to promote discussion, debate, the exchange of ideas and collaboration. Research indicates that the use of online discussion forums can have a positive impact on student motivation, student socialisation, information exchange, the construction of knowledge, and access to lectures and peers (Salmon et al., 2010).

The term ‘wiki’, derived from the Hawaiian word wiki, meaning fast or quick, provides a simple system for collaboration. Essentially, a wiki is a database for creating, browsing and searching through information. A wiki allows for non-linear, evolving, complex and networked discussion and interaction. The most well-known example of a wiki is Wikipedia, with this being an online encyclopaedia written and maintained by the collective contributors.

It is widely acknowledged that wikis embody the social constructivist principles of learning (Caverly and Ward, 2008; Moskaliuk et al., 2009; Su and Beaumont, 2010). In the development of a wiki, a group of users jointly create a digital artefact and, in the process, become active participants in the construction of their own knowledge. From an epistemological perspective, the use of wikis assists in the acquisition of digital literacy, the formation of complex concepts, as well as collaboration and research skills (Caverly and Ward, 2008; Karasavvidis, 2010; Su and Beaumont, 2010).

Blogs are broadly defined as online public journals or diaries (Tien-Chi et al., 2011). So wikis, discussion forums and blogs are forms of social media that are asynchronous. Although interaction in an asynchronous environment does not occur in real time, most good-quality blogs allow visitors to leave comments, and even message each other via widgets on the blogs. This interactivity distinguishes blogs from other static websites. In an educational context, blogs facilitate the publication of knowledge, offer opportunities for subsequent reflection and analysis, and assist learners to understand the relational and contextual basis of knowledge construction and meaning making. According to research conducted by Saeed et al. (2009:105), students also use blogging for community building, resource consolidation, the sharing of ideas or as a personal journal.

Micro-blogging is a relatively recent extension of blogging, and works in similar ways to text messaging. As a form of expression, micro-blogging has gained considerable momentum over the past few years. The high uptake of mobile Internet technologies and smartphones has provided much of the impetus for that growth. Twitter is the most popular version of micro-blogging, and is an effective communication tool for concise messages and news items. University libraries have been very quick to realise the potential of applications, such as Twitter. Its reported use, in this context, has been one of information dissemination. As indicated by Weaver (2010), Twitter is used successfully by library staff as a news service to inform students of events, catalogue additions and library loans. Micro-blogging is also evolving to be a very powerful networking tool for educators. The immediacy of information, and the capacity to access a vast range of resources through micro-blogs, has inherent appeal for academics. However, as a relatively new technology, its application in education is still evolving and, to date, there has been limited research on its use in the curriculum.

In recent years, the use of web conferencing technology to facilitate online learning in a synchronous classroom has become part of the mainstream curricula of many higher education disciplines. Such synchronous classrooms are a ‘virtual’ room where participants meet online, and in real time. Virtual classrooms are becoming a common and popular method of educational delivery, particularly in distance education. As McBrien and Jones (2009) have noted, virtual classrooms have also proven to be popular among students for reasons that include convenience and equal opportunity.

There are a number of software applications that support synchronous learning. Commercial learning products such as Wimba, Skype, Collaborate and Elluminate share several interactive characteristics. These applications can incorporate the use of audio, video, text, graphics and file sharing to enable students to participate in a learning experience that is aimed to replicate the face-to-face environment. The reported benefits of synchronous learning include enhanced communication, greater social interaction, improved group cohesion and higher levels of course satisfaction (McBrien and Jones, 2009).

Social media and pedagogical issues

The incorporation of social media into the curriculum and teaching practices provides opportunities and challenges. It is argued that Web 2.0 technologies enhance the social construction of knowledge, support learner autonomy and provide an opportunity for increased participation (McBrien and Jones, 2009; Siragusa et al., 2007). Learning activities that are no longer time-bound by the constraints of the traditional face-to-face settings also provide the opportunity for reflection, and the development of deeper learning. According to Naeem (2011:65), social media has allowed greater access, flexibility and choices for both students and lecturers in the tertiary environment, as well as providing mobility, variety, a global perspective and opportunities to experiment with new tools for teaching.

To realise the potential of social media in the curriculum, effective teaching strategies are required to support its use. As Harsell (2010:66) pointed out, when social media is used as an educational tool, well-designed and appropriate teaching methodologies are required to ensure effective learning outcomes. It has also been argued that, while educators have utilised the web to develop formal e-learning platforms, many are struggling to unleash its power as an educational tool (Harsell, 2010; Lewis et al., 2010).

Research also indicates that a limited understanding of learners’ characteristics is a major obstacle for the practice of web-based instruction in the curriculum (Saeed et al., 2009; Yang and Tsai, 2008). In addition, the success of educational programmes involving web-based technologies depends to a considerable extent on students’ acceptance and use of these technologies (Van Raaij and Schepers, 2008). Therefore, students’ learning styles and technology preferences should be taken into account in order to incorporate, effectively, emerging web technologies into course design. Cognitive overload (due to exposure to an excess of online resources over a short time), technology issues and bandwidth can also have an impact on the effectiveness of social media as an instructional tool. As Lorenzo et al. (2006) stated, ‘today’s students are not just the traditional-age net generation, nor have they all had the benefit of state-of-the-art, ubiquitous technology. Higher education comprises a highly diverse and growing student body with a wide variety of information literacy capabilities.’

Educational institutions also face several challenges when attempting to connect the ‘informal’ learning that occurs in ‘open’ social networks with the ‘formal’ learning provided in a ‘closed’ networks of a university course. In part, this is due to perceived difficulties in integrating emergent forms of social media into the highly structured university learning environment (Lewis et al., 2010). As McCarthy (2010:730) noted, Facebook and other Web 2.0 technologies are not always appropriate or successful vehicles for formal teaching and learning activities. The ways in which students use technologies in their everyday interactions with family and friends might often be different from their preferences for the use of technology in formal learning settings (McCarthy, 2010).

However, both social capital and social media have the potential to be powerful tools in the social construction of knowledge, and in the development of work-readiness skills. Research has indicated that the appropriate use of social media as an instructional technology can have a positive influence on academic performance (Saeed et al., 2009). Consequently, as new forms of social media emerge, and become embedded in mainstream communications, higher educational institutions must also be open to new media, new pedagogical approaches and also new ways in which students interact and construct meaning.

Conclusion

The use of social media, such as Facebook, Twitter, blogs, web conferencing and LinkedIn, has become a pervasive and popular form of communication and information access. The inherent networking nature of social media assists in the development of relationships, the dissemination of information, collaboration and engagement. The social capital that can be accrued through the use of social media is reported to have positive benefits across a range of areas, including educational outcomes, business activities and the public reputation of individuals, groups and organisations.

For many organisations, social media has become a business tool of choice. Building social capital, such as with current and prospective clients, colleagues and stakeholders via Internet-based Web 2.0 applications, is an integral aspect of the way professional contacts are created and maintained. It is apparent that the ubiquitous nature of social media is reshaping not only the business landscape but also the way in which business is conducted. Social media is used to harness customer sentiment, brand awareness and market insights. Through the use of social media, consumers are no longer passive observers in the marketplace.

In recent years, social media has also gained acceptance in academia as a powerful teaching and learning tool. A wide range of disciplines now use social media to enhance and support the students’ learning experience. Increasingly, the adoption of social media in the curriculum is also driven by the need to mirror its contemporary use in the world of work.

In this regard, the role of social media in business education has important pedagogical implications. Course-related networks can also serve as a ‘practice field’ in which students experience the conditions that are conducive to acquiring new knowledge, as well as gaining social and technological skills. The incorporation of social media in the curricula also enables students to bridge, or to make connections between, their acquired knowledge and skills and the work environment. Here, the role of pedagogy is critical to both functions.

However, designing courses that broaden business curricula to include practices that capitalise on social capital and the media that supports its construction, development and maintenance is a significant challenge. In addition, the challenge for any dedicated university lecturer is to use social networks to support more collaborative engagement and deeper learning for and among students. If these challenges can be met, the potential for social media to enhance student learning experience is considerable.

References