INDEX
Admiralty Surface Weapons Establishment (ASWE), 321
AEW (airborne early-warning) radar, 620
detection problem analysis of, 625
agricultural fields, 112
agricultural terrain, 492–493
mean clutter strength, 106
multifrequency clutter measurements, 184–201
air defense, 2
air turbulence, 664
depression angles, 108
airborne radar, 60
phenomenology, 82
design, 2
low-observable technology in, 2
alfalfa, 190
Allegheny Range, 176
Altona, Manitoba, 44
clutter strength measurements at, 317–319
American Intermontane desert, 510
anemometers, 583
angle calibration, 119–120
vs microshadowing, 43
X-band effects of, 160
elevation pattern, 123–125
K subarrays of, 625
omnidirectional, 387
phase center, 123
reflectors, 247
tower height, 145
transportable, 143
effects on clutter strength, 201
variations in, 197–201
visibility and, 157
Appalachian Mountains, 175
area density function, 110
artificial intelligence, 291
aspen, 182
ASWE (Admiralty Surface Weapons Establishment), 321
atmospheric refraction, 157
attenuators, 14
aurora, 664
autocorrelation function, 338
azimuthal, 341
Fourier transform of, 291
in backscattering measurements, 14
Phase One, 419
azimuth cell, 341
azimuth encoder, 255
background cells, 414
background clutter, 397
in visible terrain regions, 398
background components, 344
coefficient, 162
discrete sources and, 414
from vegetation, 650
in level farmland terrain, 92
localized sources of, 221
microwave, 111–114
seasonal effects on, 112
terrain and, 11
VHF (very high frequency), 162
barley, 190
barns, 44
parked mode, 254
scan mode, 254
step mode, 254
Beaufort wind scale, 577
Beiseker, Alberta, 11
clutter strength vs radar frequency, 189–192
cropland clutter spectra, 613–614
repeat sector measurements, 189–192
Bessel function, 559
Beulah, North Dakota, 278
cropland clutter measurements, 612–613
Big Grass Marsh, 202
bimodal distribution, 80–82
bins, 427
birch, 182
bistatic scattering patterns, 651
Blackman-Harris window function, 584
Blue Knob, Pennsylvania, 81
clutter strength vs frequency, 148
repeat sector measurements, 163–164
Booker Mountain, Nevada, 529
desert clutter spectra, 610–612
repeat sector measurements, 202
boundary cells, 50
boundary regions, 291
branches, 576
Brazeau, Alberta, 62
PPI clutter maps, 542
radar site, 178
seasonal variations at, 180
buildings, 8
as clutter sources, 58
built-up terrain. See also urban terrain
bulrushes, 202
Burnstick, 45
burr oak, 182
bushes, 58
Calgary, Alberta, 82
clutter measurement sites near, 37
calibration, 254–257
angle, 119–120
range, 120
signal strength, 121–123
Camp Wainwright, 182
Canadian Rocky Mountains, 37
canola, 190
carrier wavelength, 263
cattails, 202
Cazenovia, New York, 56
C-band radar, 656
CDC (Clutter Data Collection), 257
area, 9
dimensions, 339
size, 292
cell-level aggregation, 99
China, 650–651
circular polarization, 598
clutter, 23
airborne, 106–108
amplitude, 1
amplitude distributions, 22
azimuthal smearing of, 287
cancellers, 3
correlation, 227
correlation time, 276
covariance matrix, 636
data recording, 37
discrete sources of, 8–9
distributed, 320–324
early measurements of, 1
early models of, 1
environment, 664
exponential, 617–618
Gaussian, 618–619
granularity, 287
in shadowed terrain regions, 398
lack of range dependency in, 305
low-angle, 333
macroscale, 18
measurements, 13–16
overview, 23
percent of area in, 351
percentage of cells in, 351
point source of, 9
prediction of, 16–22
propagation, 24–25
seasonal effects on, 111–114
shadowless, 393
simulation of, 2
spillover into shadowed regions, 402–403
stationary, 1
voltage signals, 411
wetland, 85–87
windblown, 576–582
within wide annular regions, 379–387
angle of illumination and, 43
at negative depression angles, 95
dependence of spread on depression angle, 289
depression angle and, 68–71
depression angle vs shadowing, 59
high tails in, 77
high-relief agricultural terrain, 495
high-relief desert, 532
high-relief forest, 511
level agricultural terrain, 505–506
low-relief agricultural terrain, 499
low-relief desert, 535
low-relief forest, 517
mean strength, 418
moments of, 376
mountain terrain, 539
parametric effects on, 413–414
repeat sector patches, 209
rural/low-relief patches, 100
shape parameter, 419
standard deviation-to-mean ratio, 222–227
statistical attributes of, 129–132
upper and lower bounds, 275
urban terrain, 446
wetland terrain, 526
X-band, 69
from visible regions of terrain, 297
K-distribution of, 53
non-Raleigh, 7
overall ensemble distribution of, 74–75
overview, 126
parametric dependencies in, 24
probability distributions, 544
spatial cell-to-cell variability of, 544
spatial correlation of, 290
statistical measures of, 24
clutter cancellers, 3
MTI improvement factor of, 617
single delay-line, 616
clutter cells, 44
background, 397
false-alarm, 667
noise level, 59
parametric effects, 413–414
radiation between radar and, 24
spectral power ratio in, 581
vertical scatterers in, 25
clutter coefficient, 216
as area-density function, 6
in resolution cells, 604–606
measurement of, 5
clutter correlation, 227
Clutter Data Collection (CDC), 257
clutter maps, 46
correlation in, 315
Magrath, Alberta, 409–410
Phase Zero sites, 299–302
site-specific prediction of, 287
effect of radar resolution on, 110–111
higher-order effects in, 396–399
multifrequency, 145–146
clutter modeling, 426
conceptual, 320
discrete components, 330–333
distributed components, 330–333
DTED (digitized terrain elevation data) in, 65–67
empirical, 320
ensemble aggregations of cell-level statistics in, 98
grazing angle in, 294
improvements in, 543–544
low-angle, 10
non-angle-specific, 297–299
non-patchy approaches to, 290
non-site specific, 302–305
objective, 287–288
one-component, 18–19
presentation format for, 427–429
rationale for, 288–290
scope of, 291–292
two-distribution approach, 334
See also interim clutter model
cell-to-cell variability within, 16
classification by terrain slope, 65
Gull Lake West, Manitoba, 47–50
illumination of, 44
in terms of landform, 409
interclutter visibility and, 7
Magrath, Alberta, 409–410
mapping of, 46
measurements of, 555–558
Plateau Mountain, 77–80
pure, 441–443
terrain descriptive information, 127
Waterton, Alberta, 80
Wolseley, Saskatchewan, 442
clutter physics, 160–162
low-angle clutter, 42–43
clutter power, 604–606
output from single delay-line canceller, 617
predicting in Doppler cells, 604
residual, 616
clutter prediction, 16–22
empirical approach to, 17
simplified approach to, 440
coherency of, 145
from area-extensive terrain surfaces, 46
clutter spatial field, 7
current vs historical measurements, 659–661
effects of instrumentation on, 672–674
exponential shape, 654–659
fast-diffuse exponential component, 665
Gaussian shape, 640–643
in gale winds, 669–671
L-band measurements of, 667
lowland data, 667–668
matching with analytic shapes, 662
noncoherent, 645
power-law shape, 643–654
regions of approximation, 606–609
VHF vs X-band, 675
wideband background component, 666
exponential, 635–639
measurement basis for, 582–604
scope of, 581–582
use of, 604–619
confidence levels, 425
kurtosis, coefficient of, 130
linear regression, 135–136
lognormal, 136–138
mean, 129
mean deviation, 130
moments, 129
percentiles, 132
sampling populations, 425
shadowless, 410
skewness, coefficient of, 130
standard deviation, 129
Weibull, 416–418
clutter strength, 408
calibration of, 37
cell-to-cell variability in, 261
classification by land cover, 65
classification by landform, 65
coefficient of, 25
cumulative distributions of, 127
desert vs forest, 297
determination of, 118
diurnal variability and, 235
effects of antenna height on, 201
effects of illumination angle on, 66
effects of microshadowing on, 317
effects of polarization on, 414
effects of weather and season on, 231–234
frequency dependence of, 209–211
mean, 427
mean vs median, 102
median, 427
multifrequency, 204–209
percentile levels of, 389
polarization dependence on, 212–215
resolution dependence of, 216–221
saturation levels, 373–374
seasonal differences in, 235
shadowless, 22
spatial dilution of, 371
spatial variations, 237–242
temporal variations, 237–242
urban, 84
clutter strength number, 408
clutter to noise power ratio See (CNR)
clutter visibility, 300
range and, 351–354
clutter voltage, 564
amplitude, 563
CNR (clutter to noise power ratio), 621
Coaldale, 317
coaxial RF cables, 250
Cochrane, Alberta, 324–325
coefficient of determination, 135
of dB values, 131
of dB values, 131
coherency, 276–277
coherent processing interval See (CPI)
clutter patch histograms, 126
low-angle clutter measurements, 312–314
multifrequency clutter measurements, 177
terrain elevation data at, 313
color codes, 427
composite terrain, 294
computers, 250
confidence levels, 425
constant-false-alarm rate See (CFAR)
Convair 580 aircraft, 106
antenna height variations at, 197–201
level farmland at, 166
repeat sector measurements, 163–164
corner reflectors, 256
correlation distance, 335
correlation time, 276
vs radar carrier frequency, 338
cosmic noise, 664
CPI (coherent processing interval), 581
creosote, 609
windblown clutter spectra, 612–615
cultural objects, 46
lognormal, 136–138
beam scan mode, 254
beam step mode, 254
parked beam mode, 254
decorrelation, 627
azimuthal, 343
decorrelation time, 651
Defence Evaluation and Research Agency, 307
Defence Research Establishment Ottawa See (DREO)
degrees of freedom See (DOF)
density function, 331
depression angle, 19–20
bins of, 427
calculation of, 440
computing from DTED, 289
definition of, 55–56
effects on clutter histogram shapes, 56
effects on microshadowing, 413–414
effects on spread in clutter amplitude statistics, 415
equation for computing, 56
farmland vs forest, 104–106
general characteristics, 101–104
hilltop vs level sites, 194–195
terrain elevation and, 415
terrain slopes and, 165–168
desert, 201
clutter strength vs depression angle, 297
high-relief, 531–532
land clutter coefficient, 529–530
LCE clutter spectrum for, 585
low-relief, 533–535
repeat sector, 202
spatial resolution cells, 609–612
desert clutter, 244
strength vs radar frequency, 545
detection, probability of, 622
dielectric constant, 234
diffraction, 259
digital-to-analog (D/A) converter, 253
digitized maps, 291
digitized terrain elevation data See (DTED)
Dirac delta function, 577
direction-of-arrival See (DOA)
discrete cells, 414
discrete clutter, 397
Cochrane, Alberta, 324–325
in visible terrain regions, 398
modeling of, 320
discrete components, 344
discrete sources, 414–415
physical discretes, 414
RCS amplitudes of, 321
within macropatches, 290
distributed clutter, 320–324
diurnal variability, 111
of clutter strength, 235
DOA (direction-of-arrival), 625
DOF (degrees of freedom), 628
dominant-to-Rayleigh reflector ratio, 335
echos, 234
frequency, 616
signal processing, 1
spectra, 334
clutter cross section in, 605
clutter power in, 604
index, 605
non-zero, 607
exponential clutter distribution in, 617–618
Gaussian clutter distribution in, 618–619
transformation from Doppler velocity, 616
Doppler velocity, 577
abscissa, 579
break-point, 643
gale force, 593
of windblown clutter spectra, 579
resolution cell, 586
transformation to Dopper frequency, 616
accuracy, 63–64
cartographic source, 312
clutter strength vs grazing angle, 62–63
for hypotheitical hilltop sites, 360
geometric terrain visibility in, 307
in defining depression angle, 19
photogrammetric source, 312
prediction of shadowed regions, 398
site-specific, 290
Dundurn, 183
incidence angle and, 55
effect on ground clutter, 302
equation for, 56
effective site height, 38
Eimac resonant cavity, 251
electromagnetic propagation, 243
elevation beam, 14
encoder, 255
ensemble amplitude distributions, 96–100
cell-level aggregative, 98
from clutter patches, 94
radar spatial resolution and, 110–111
environment clutter, 664
Equinox Mountain, Vermont, 132
equivalent noise bandwidth, 586
error bounds, 297–298
error function, 137
inverse, 137
exciter, 250
single delay-line canceller in, 617–618
spectral model, 635–639
spectral shape, 654–659
exponential power statistics, 416
exponential shape parameter, 659
historical results and, 659–661
improvement factor and, 620
facets, 266
clutter cells, 667
probability of, 622
farm machinery, 493
farmland clutter, 492
K-distributions, 561–573
lognormal distributions, 561–573
seasonal effects on, 493
strength vs radar frequency, 244
See also clutter
fast Fourier transform See (FFT)
fence lines, 58
FFT (fast Fourier transform), 584
of temporal pulse-by-pulse returns, 336
relative shape of, 589
fixed scatterers, 576
forest, 506–507
frequency dependencies of, 163–165
multifrequency measurements of, 175–183
forested wetlands, 48
canopies, 262
frequency dependencies of clutter in, 163–165
high-relief, 507–513
level, 88
low-relief, 513–518
percent tree cover, 92
See also terrain
fractal phenomenon, 65
Framingham, Massachusetts, 391
France, 658
frequency response function, 616
Fresnel zones, 192
gale winds, 578
clutter spectra in, 592–594
spectral measurements in, 669–671
gas pumping station, 326
Gaussian clutter, 618–619
numerical examples, 619
high-relief, 429–434
land clutter coefficients for, 429–436
low relief, 434–436
geometric shadowing, 243
clutter strength and, 353
GIS (geographic information system), 316
glacial deposit, 182
goodness-of-fit hypothesis test, 570
grain, 190
grain storage elevators, 74
clutter strength vs depression angle, 297
high-relief, 521–522
low-relief, 522–523
grazing angle, 9–11
antenna mast height and, 58
dependence of background clutter on, 400
in clutter data analysis, 415
in clutter modeling, 294
terrain slopes and, 62
grazing incidence, 53
greasewood, 609
Great Salt Lake Desert, 202
ground, 576
airborne, 106–108
backscatter in, 115
effects of polarization, 414
effects of terrain shadowing, 371–379
frequency dependence of, 209–211
high-range resolution, 46
low-angle, 291
low-range resolution, 44–46
measurement sites, 37
measurements, 13–16
overview, 23
power spectra, 575
seasonal effects on, 111–114
source of intrinsic fluctuation, 575
sources of, 8–9
variability in mean strength of, 243
See also land clutter
ground clutter measurements, 13–16
ground-based radar, 1
dominant clutter sources, 43
location of, 359
Gull Lake East, Manitoba, 52
Gull Lake West, Manitoba, 47–50
multifrequency ground clutter maps, 154
repeat sector measurements, 155
seasonal effects on clutter measurements in, 112
harmonic oscillators, 642
Hewlett Packard signal generator, 250
modelling, 60
strength vs radar range, 58–60
higher-order effects in, 396–399
high-range resolution, 46
clutter amplitude distributions, 495
land clutter coefficients, 493–496
mean clutter strength for, 493
clutter amplitude distributions, 532
land clutter coefficient, 531–532
clutter amplitude distributions, 511
high depression angle and, 175–177
land clutter coefficients, 507–513
low depression angle and, 177–178
mean clutter strength, 507–509
uncertain outliers in, 510–511
high-relief landform, 158
high-relief terrain, 82
agricultural, 185–188
rural, 75
slopes, 66
high-speed data recorders, 250
hillock, 221
hilltops, 9
radar sites, 360
histograms, 5
computation of clutter statistics, 129
ensemble, 96
of classified groups, 420
of clutter strength, 408–409
parameters, 422
homogeneous clutter, 7
vs vertical polarization, 432
hummocks, 9
coherency of, 276
IIT Research Institute (IITRI), 320
effects on low-angle clutter strength, 66
fundamental measure of, 62
low, 333
incident fields, 44
insects, 664
interclutter visibility, 7
angle-specific, 292–297
error bounds in, 297–298
general terrain types in, 294
multifrequency, 297–298
overview, 294–295
statistical depth of, 293
subclass terrain types in, 294
intermediate frequency See (IF)
K channels, 625
backscatter measurements at, 583
clutter strength vs depression angle, 356
clutter strength vs range, 11
clutter visibility at, 288
X-band clutter and terrain visibility at, 287
K-distributions, 74
cumulative distribution function of, 558
of farmland clutter, 561–573
vs Weibull distribution, 558–561
klystron, 671
Knolls, Utah, 529
desert clutter spectra, 610–612
kurtosis, 227
coefficient of, 137
definition of, 132
radar frequency and, 228
Laboratoire Central de Telecommunications, 658
Lackawanna River, 176
Lake Winnipeg, 181
shoreline, 146
lakes, 411
land, 25
land clutter, 242
backscattering coefficient, 42
in surface radar, 544
long-range diffraction-illuminated, 25
low-angle, 396
low-range resolution, 44–46
maps, 44–46
measurement data, 2
model, 9
seasonal effects on, 111–114
spatial field of, 19
spatial homegeneity of, 6
strength vs radar frequency, 168
desert, 529–530
grassland terrain, 521
high-relief agricultural terrain, 493–496
high-relief desert, 531–532
high-relief forest, 507–513
high-relief general mixed rural terrain, 429–434
high-relief grassland, 521–522
high-relief shrubland, 518–519
level agricultural terrain, 501–506
level desert, 535–536
low-relief agricultural terrain, 496–501
low-relief desert, 533–535
low-relief forest, 513–518
low-relief general mixed rural terrain, 434–436
low-relief grassland, 522–523
low-relief shrubland, 519–521
mountains, 537–539
overview, 429
pure terrain, 440–441
shrubland terrain, 518
urban terrain, 443–491
wetland terrain, 526–529
overview, 408
program for, 2
land cover, 37
as backscatter sources, 318
discrete vertical features in, 62
mean clutter strength in classes of, 308–309
raw Landsat data, 440
variations in, 60
land use, 111
landform, 37
classes, 158
clutter patches in, 409
high-relief, 158
low-relief, 158
mean clutter strength in classes of, 308–309
Landsat, 313
landscape, 2
scales, 5
land-surface form, 3
larch, 48
desert clutter spectra, 611
dipole feed, 247
mean clutter strength vs polarization at, 213
MTI filter performance at, 623–625
STAP system performance at, 631–635
L-band Clutter Experiment. See LCE
LCE radar, 583–584
primary design objective of, 584
spectral processing in, 584–585
leaf velocity distribution, 650
leaves, 576
Lethbridge, Alberta, 82
mountain clutter measurements at, 268–272
repeat sector measurements, 172
clutter amplitude distributions, 505–506
land clutter coefficients, 501–506
mean clutter strength, 502–505
level desert, 535–536
land clutter coefficients, 535–536
mean clutter strength, 536
level farmland, 88
frequency dependencies of clutter in, 163–165
level forest, 88
level terrain, 87–91
vertical objects on, 317–319
lightning, 664
linear regression, 135–136
liquid helium, 671
lognormal distributions, 416
equations, 136–138
of farmland clutter, 561–573
lognormal scale, 51
within 360° range gates, 387–395
within wide annular regions, 379–387
land clutter coefficients, 540–542
overview, 145
low range resolution, 44–46
low reflectivity areas, 115
low-altitude targets, 10
amplitudes, 58
attributes of, 3
cell-to-cell variability in, 110
clutter physics, 42–43
clutter strength vs range, 58
depression angle characteristics of, 104
effects of trees on, 91–93
granularity in, 9
high-relief terrain in, 82
low-relief terrain in, 82
major elements in, 43–44
modeling of, 289
multifrequency results of, 243
overview, 396
patchiness, 7
phenomenology, 2
spatial amplitude distributions, 115
spatial extents, 7
spatial resolution in, 18
spikiness of, 322
statistical models, 2
lower bounds, 275
lowlands, 668
low-observable technology, 2
clutter amplitude distributions, 499
land clutter coefficients, 496–501
mean clutter strength, 496
patch-to-patch variability in, 500
clutter amplitude distributions, 535
mean clutter strength, 533–534
clutter amplitude distributions, 517
high depression angle and, 178–179
intermediate depression angle and, 180–182
land clutter coefficients, 513–518
low depression angle, 183
mean clutter strength, 514–516
microshadowing in, 514
terrain elevation data, 513
uncertain outliers in, 516
low-relief landform, 158
low-resolution radar, 7
discrete sources, 290
predicting the existence of, 289
azimuth averaging through, 387
spatial dilution of clutter with, 307
Magrath, Alberta, 399
clutter patch measurements, 555–558
clutter patch selection at, 409–410
mountain clutter measurements at, 268–272
man-made structures, 8
marsh, 201
clutter strength vs depression angle, 297
mast height, 359
effect on terrain visibility, 360–364
agricultural terrain, 106
high-relief agricultural terrain, 493
lower bound of, 389
low-relief agricultural terrain, 496
one-sigma variability of, 417
shadowless, 388
urban areas, 84
vs median clutter strength, 102
Weibull, 73
mean deviation, 356
mean-to-median ratio, 427
in clutter histograms, 422
median clutter strength, 427
vs mean clutter strength, 102
vs percent tree cover, 92
Weibull, 72
median position, 210
meteor trails, 664
microshadowing, 290
black, 52
effects of depression angle on, 413–414
effects on clutter strength, 317
in clutter measurements, 51–52
in low-angle clutter, 22
in low-relief forest, 514
vs angle of illumination, 43
vs depression angle in clutter patches, 102
microstatistics, 290
microtopography, 414
microwave backscatter, 111–114
microwave bands, 195
microwave clutter, 44
minimum least squares See (MLS)
MIT Radiation Laboratory, 594
classification of, 409
MLS (minimum least squares), 636
model validation, 543
moments, 129
computation of, 410
interpretation of, 132
method of, 259
of clutter amplitude distributions, 376
shadowless, 275
bi-modal distributions of, 80–82
multifrequency measurements of, 172–174
phenomenology, 82
vs depression angle, 545
mountains, 37
clutter amplitude distributions, 539
clutter strength vs radar frequency in, 172–174
land clutter coefficients, 537–539
long-range, 540–542
moving scatterers, 576
moving target indicator See (MTI)
MTI (moving target indicator), 23
cutoff frequency, 658
impact of windblown clutter spectra on, 621–623
improvement factors, 616
L-band results, 623–625
signal-to-interference power ratio, 621–623
single-delay-line, 607
X-band results, 622–623
agricultural terrain, 184–201
Cold Lake, Alberta, 177
data collection, 146
Dundurn, 183
equipment, 146
forest, 175–183
Gull Lake West, Manitoba, 155
L-band, 204–209
mountains, 172–174
overview, 145–146
Sandridge, 183
S-band, 204–209
UHF band, 204–209
urban terrain, 170–172
VHF band, 204–209
See also Phase One clutter measurements
See also repeat sector measurements
multipath lobes, 163
radar frequency and, 414
multipath propagation, 259–262
hillside, 262–268
overview, 145
multipath reflections, 44
interference on direct illumination, 161
natural vegetation, 518
Neepawa, Manitoba, 186–188
negative depression angle, 94–95
no tree distribution, 92
contamination, 131
corruption, 410–411
at high Doppler velocities, 591
in clutter cells, 59
zero power, 275
noise power, 22
assigning values to, 131
from shadowed samples, 389
non-site-specific clutter model, 302–305
clutter cut-off range, 303
database of measurements for, 308–309
definition of, 302
normalization, 330–333
North American continent, 2
Pakowki Lake, 193
patch amplitude distributions, 308
patch histograms, 372
boundaries, 22
classification by terrain slope, 65
histograms, 372
separation, 8
sizes, 8
statistical convergence, 100
deterministic, 18
spatial, 289
pattern recognition, 291
Peace River, Alberta, 287
clutter patch measurements, 555–558
Pembina Hills, 44
Penhold II, 177
percent area, 351
percent circumference, 351
percent tree cover, 92
percentile levels, 229–231
of long-range clutter strength, 389
periodograms, 336
phase modulation, 657
360-degree survey data, 146
clutter patches, 126
clutter strength vs antenna height, 201
histograms, 418
instruments, 13–16
L-band experiments, 337
multifrequency, 143
objectives, 143
overview, 242
repeat sector, 154–156
repeat sector patches, 160
seasonal revisits, 235
sites, 247
spatial variations, 237–242
See also repeat sector measurements
calibration, 254–257
overview, 14
seasonal revisits of, 235
Phase Zero clutter maps, 299–302
Plateau Mountain, 77
Shilo, 58
clutter strength vs antenna height, 201
microshadowing vs depression angle, 102
oversampling in, 127
site heights, 38–39
sites of, 37
standard deviation-to-mean vs depression angle, 101
summer vs winter data, 112
angle calibration, 119–120
elevation pattern gain variation, 123–125
instrument, 13–15
overview, 14
primary display of, 36
range calibration, 120
receiver, 58
schematic diagram of, 118
physical discretes, 414
Picture Butte II, 356
plan position indicator. See PPI
plant morphology, 111
clutter patches at, 77–80
repeat sector measurements, 172–174
point objects, 322
point source, 9
Poisson distribution, 53
circular, 598
dependence of clutter strength on, 212–215
effects on ground clutter strength, 414
invariance with clutter spectra shape, 597–598
overview, 144
Weibull mean strength and, 418
Polonia, Manitoba, 186–187
poplar, 182
potatoes, 615
power law, 575
in clutter spectral shape, 643–654
rate of decay, 661
Russian studies, 646–650
spectral decay, 649
spectral shape function, 582
power meters, 255
power spectral density See (PSD)
Altona, Manitoba, 318
Brazeau, Alberta, 542
Cochrane, Alberta, 324–325
overview, 286
Peace River, Alberta, 287
site-specific prediction, 542–543
PPI display, 350
prairie, 4
Beiseker, Alberta, 11
farmland, 56
grassland, 58
low-relief, 83
sloughs, 326
precipitation, 664
in Phase Zero receiver, 118
PRI (pulse repetition interval), 336
input clutter power within, 616
of radar, 119
probability density function, 136
probability of detection, 622
probability of false alarm, 622
propagation, 24–25
electromagnetic, 243
lobes, 44
velocity of, 42
PSD (power spectral density), 576
equation, 576
pulse length, 42
pulse repetition frequency. See PRF
pulse repetition interval. See PRI
pure terrain, 409
classification of, 409
land clutter coefficients for, 440
Puskwaskau, Alberta, 178
AEW (airborne early-warning), 620
angle calibration, 119–120
antenna mast height, 359
azimuth scan of, 388
carrier wavelength, 263
C-band, 656
finite sensitivity limits, 371
frequency, 20–21
ground-based, 359
high-resolution, 7
line-of-sight, 126
low-resolution, 7
noise floor, 350
polarization, 27
PPI display, 350
PRI (pulse repetition interval), 119
pulse length, 43
range calibration, 120
Raytheon Mariners Pathfinder 1650/9XR, 118
shipboard, 25
signal strength calibration, 121–123
radar cross section See (RCS)
Radar Data Processor, 253
Radar Directive File, 258
correlation times and, 338
decoupling of, 20–21
dependence of ground clutter on, 209–211
insensitivity of distribution shape to, 419
vs spectral power ratio, 602–604
vs spectral widths, 594–597
Weibull mean strength and, 418
radar noise, 275
corruption, 21–22
measurement of, 410–411
radar spatial resolution, 27
calculation of, 426
decoupling of, 20–21
effects on spread in clutter amplitude distributions, 413
ensemble amplitude distributions and, 110–111
equation, 420
Weibull shape parameter and, 418
windblown trees and, 576–582
radials, 119
radio frequency. See RF
radome, 247
rail lines, 318
as discrete clutter sources, 115
rain, 664
range, 286
clutter strength vs, 58
correlation coefficient, 341
dependence on, 11–13
extent, 155
intervals, 422
range calibration, 120
thresholding process for, 118
range resolution, 244
dependence of clutter strength on, 216–221
high, 46
low, 44–46
grassy, 182
herbaceous, 325
prairie, 182
subcategories of, 518
windblown clutter spectra for, 615–616
ratio of standard deviation-to-mean, 222
Rayleigh, 48
slope, 48
statistics, 335
RCS (radar cross section), 5
discrete sources of clutter and, 9
prediction of, 19
receivers, 250
noise level, 5
reflection, 259
specular, 267
elementary, 647
refractive index, 664
Regina Plain, Saskatchewan, 193
regression analysis, 422
remote sensing, 650
azimuth extent, 155
Booker Mountain, Nevada, 202
computational examples, 278–279
Corinne, Saskatchewan, 197–201
data collection, 146
database, 209
diurnial variability and, 235
forest, 175–183
Gull Lake West, Manitoba, 155
mean strength vs polarization, 212–215
mountains, 172–174
Neepawa, Manitoba, 186–188
objectives, 154
Polonia, Manitoba, 186–187
range extent, 155
start range, 155
terrain classification in, 158
urban terrain, 170–172
See also Phase one clutter measurements
reradiators, 642
clutter coefficient in, 604–606
desert, 609–612
Dopple velocity, 586
windblown trees in, 576–582
resonant cavities, 251
RF (radio frequency), 154
Ricean statistics, 335
ridge, 47
ridge tops, 112
Riding Mountain, 187
river bluffs, 9
road markers, 120
roads, 318
rocks, 576
Rocky Mountains, 45
Rosetown, Saskatchewan, 82
repeat sector measurements, 194
rotating structures, 664
rural terrain, 68
clutter modeling for, 545
clutter strength vs depression angle, 296
depression angle distributions for, 68–70
general mixed, 429–434
overall amplitude distribution in, 75–77
subclass types, 294
clutter amplitude distributions, 100
clutter strength vs depression angle, 296
depression angle distributions for, 68–70
general mixed, 434–436
overall amplitude distribution in, 75–77
Russia, 646–650
sagebrush, 297
sampling populations, 425
sand dunes, 46
Sandridge, 183
SAR (synthetic aperture radar), 106
image data compression in, 291
X-band, 106
mean clutter strength vs polarization at, 213
mean clutter strengths at, 185
waveguide feed at, 247
regression analysis, 422
scatterers, 600
elemental, 649
oscillatory motions in, 642
radial velocity of, 579
rotation of, 642
scattering ensemble, 339
scintillation, 10
clutter strength from steep forest at, 166
effects on ground clutter strength of, 231–234
SEKE propagation code, 262
sensitivity limits, 356
sensitivity time control. See STC
servodrives, 255
shadowed distribution, 402–403
clutter spillover into, 402–403
clutter strength for, 319
definition of, 371
total clutter in, 398
shape of, 379
statistical attributes of, 384
vs radar sensitivity, 377
shadowless mean, 391–394
definition of, 276
equation, 388
shape parameter, 419
low-angle clutter at, 56
multifrequency clutter measurements at, 195–197
shipboard radar, 25
high-relief, 518–519
land clutter coefficients, 518
low-relief, 519–521
vs grassland, 526
sidelobes, 247
signal generators, 255
signal processors, 250
estimation of, 346
measurement of, 5
time histories of, 2
signal-to-interference power ratio, 621
signal-to-noise ratio, 254
site height, 359
effect on terrain visibility of, 360–364
effective, 38
site-specific clutter model, 307
advantages of, 343
description of, 343
skewness, 227
coefficient of, 137
definition of, 132
radar frequency and, 228
slant range, 56
snow, 189
soil, moisture content of, 234
space-time adaptive processing See (STAP)
space-time correlation coefficient, 626
spatial amplitude distributions, 7
for general terrain types, 68–70
parametric dependence in, 115
spatial cells, 9
spatial correlation, 339–343
cell-to-cell, 426
coefficient, 627
spatial density, 9
lack of uniformity in, 7
vs signal-strength threshold, 8
spatial filters, 397
spatial incidence, 9
spatial occupancy map, 18
spatial patches, 3
spatial resolution, 292
azimuth extent of, 342
in clutter histograms, 422
spatial variability, 245
patch-to-patch, 241
spatial variations, 237–242
spectral decay, 337
Doppler velocity and, 668
exponential, 674
power-law, 649
spectral power, 577
computation of, 587–589
decay, 646
near zero-Doppler, 580
ratio, 581
total, 587
vs radar frequency, 602–604
vs wind speed, 600–602
effects of cell size on, 598–600
effects of season on, 598–600
effects of site on, 598–600
effects of tree species on, 598–600
function, 639
invariance with radar frequency, 594–597
invariance with radar polarization, 597–598
shoulders in, 615
temporal variation, 598
variations with wind speed, 589–594
ac power in, 590
high-level, 664
power-law, 643
rate of decay, 620
specular reflection, 267
derivation of, 420
in amplitude statistics, 413
Spruce Home, Saskatchewan, 411–413
STALO (stable local oscillator), 672
standard deviation, 129
of dB values, 131
standard deviation-to-mean ratio, 222–227
in clutter histograms, 422
Weibull shape parameter and, 417
STAP (space-time adaptive processing), 23
effect of windblown clutter on, 625–629
L-band results, 631–635
X-band results, 629–630
stationary clutter, 1
statistical clutter amplitude distributions, 23
statistical estimation theory, 100
statistical models, 2
confidence level, 425
Rayleigh, 335
Ricean, 335
sampling populations, 425
shadowless, 410
temporal, 335
Weibull, 416–418
step discontinuity, 53
step function, 307
overlaying clutter maps onto, 46
Strathcona, 171
stream beds, 318
clutter strength vs range, 327
discrete clutter sources at, 325–330
repeat sector clutter measurements at, 330
terrain, 325
sugar beets, 615
sum of squared deviations, 136
surface relief, 37
surface wave, 10
surface-area density function, 5
surface-sited radar, 1
survival wind velocity, 247
synthetic aperture radar. See SAR
system clocks, 584
tamarack, 48
target detection, 5
detection statistics, 5
low-altitude, 10
low-flying, 1
telephone poles, 44
in range calibration of radars, 120
temporal correlation coefficient, 626
temporal statistics, 335
attributes of, 335
temporal variations, 237–242
in spectral shapes, 598
in windblown clutter spectra, 598
of clutter strength, 291
terrain, 10
classification of, 37–41
classification system, 243
clutter patches, 61
clutter strength vs frequency, 168
composite, 294
description methodology, 156–159
desert, 529–530
effects on clutter, 24
effects on illumination, 259
elevation profile, 56
forest, 506–507
geometric visibility of, 359
grassland, 521
heterogeneity, 65
high-relief, 82
land clutter coefficients, 429
level, 87–91
low-relief, 82
microwave backscatter from, 111–114
mountain, 537–539
negative depression angle, 94–95
pure, 409
pure vs mixed, 50–54
rural, 68
rural/high-relief, 68
rural/low-relief, 68
shrubland, 518
subcategorization of, 294
variability within class, 243
terrain elevation, 360
depression angle and, 415
terrain patches. See clutter patches
terrain reflection coefficients, 44
terrain relief, 440
terrain shadowing, 371
effects on ground clutter distributions, 371–379
terrain slopes, 56–57
depression angle and, 165–168
from topographic contour maps, 192
grazing angle and, 62
high-relief, 66
low-relief, 66
patch classification by, 65
determination of, 319
effects of varying mast heights on, 360–364
effects of varying site heights on, 360–364
geometric, 319
thermal noise, 5
Toeplitz matrix, 626
topographic maps, 37
overlaying clutter maps onto, 46
quadrangle, 64
towers, 9
towns, 112
traveling wave tubes, 251
tree foliage, 48
backscattering from, 52
tree lots, 91
tree trunks, 576
trees, 8
as discrete clutter source, 115
effects on low-angle clutter, 91–93
effects on visibility, 312–314
in spatial resolution cells, 62
wind-induced motion of, 575
Turtle Mountain, 182
clutter strengths at, 211
clutter strength at, 177
mean clutter strengths at, 194
UHF clutter, 411–413
uncertain outliers, 443
upper bounds, 275
multifrequency measurements of, 170–172
residential vs commercial, 84–85
strength, 84
vs radar frequency, 545
urban terrain, 68
clutter amplitude distributions, 446
clutter modeling for, 545
clutter strength vs radar frequency, 170–172
depression angle distributions for, 68–70
land clutter coefficients, 443–491
mean clutter strength for, 444
overall amplitude distribution in, 75–77
uncertain outliers, 445–446
USGS EROS Data Center, 440
utility poles, 9
clutter strength vs frequency at, 151
velocity of propagation, 42
mean clutter strength at, 215
vs horizontal polarization, 432
VHF (very high frequency), 13
clutter strength at, 177
mean clutter strengths at, 194
multipath loss, 330
polarization bias, 511
multipath propagation in, 172
VHF/UHF feed system, 247
visibility, 300
antenna heights and, 157
effect of trees on, 312–314
interclutter, 7
of terrain, 312
clutter patches at, 411–413
clutter strength vs depression angle at, 356
clutter strength vs frequency at, 149
LCE clutter spectral measurements at, 584
Wainwrigh, 150
as clutter source, 74
clutter patches at, 80
repeat sector measurements at, 172–174
waveforms, 254
high-range resolution, 228
low-range resolution, 228
pulsed, 146
wavefront, 52
waveguides, 247
effects on ground clutter strength, 231–234
Weibull clutter model, 543
equation, 549
polarization and, 418
radar frequency and, 418
Weibull median strength, 72
mean-to-median ratio, 134
of farmland clutter, 561–573
overview, 548
ratio of mean-to-median in, 549
ratio of standard deviation-to-mean, 549
ratio of variance to the square of the mean in, 549
standard deviation-to-mean ratio, 134
vs K-distribution, 554–561
vs lognormal distribution, 554–561
Weibull scale, 51
calculation of, 432
equation, 549
standard deviation-to-mean ratio and, 417
urban terrain and, 446
vs radar spatial resolution, 295
in probability distributions, 544
Westlock, 182
wetland clutter, 85–87
clutter amplitude distributions, 526
land clutter coefficient, 526–529
mean clutter strength, 527–529
vs level forest clutter, 91
dielectric constant of, 234
white noise power, 621
willow, 48
wind scale, 577
logarithm of, 578
spectral power ratio and, 600–602
spectral shape and, 589–594
spectral width and, 578
windblown clutter, 576–582
Doppler spectra, 334
effect on STAP (space-time adaptive processing), 625–629
regions of spectral approximation, 606–609
spectra vs radar frequency, 594–597
spectral decay of, 337
spectral measurements of, 582
spectral processing, 584–585
spectral shape vs radar polarization, 597–598
Beulah, North Dakota, 612–613
Chinese studies of, 650–651
cropland, 612–615
desert, 609–612
Doppler velocity extent of, 579
effects of cell size on, 598–600
effects of season on, 598–600
effects of site on, 598–600
effects of system instabilities on, 672
effects of tree species on, 598–600
impact on MTI filter performance, 621–623
in breezy conditions, 592–594
in gale winds, 592–594
in light-air conditions, 592–594
in windy conditions, 592–594
invariance with radar frequency of, 594–597
model, 581–582
normalization of, 586
rangeland, 615–616
Russian studies of, 647
physical model for, 666
spatial resolutions cells with, 576–582
X-band clutter spectra for, 671–672
Woking, Alberta, 177
Wolseley, Saskatchewan, 442
farmland clutter data from, 340
repeat sector measurements at, 194
X-band clutter measurements at, 563–573
World War II, 1
X-band, 13
backscattering, 651
clutter amplitude distributions, 69
clutter strength vs grazing angle, 11
desert clutter spectra, 611
elemental scatterers at, 649
MTI filter performance at, 622–623
SAR (synthetic-aperture radar), 106
STAP system performance at, 629–630
terrrain reflection coefficients at, 260
tracking systems, 543
transmitters, 179
angle, 68–71
amplitude histogram, 565
effects of trees on, 91–93
level terrain, 87–91
mountain terrain, 77–82
overall distribution of, 74–75
parametric variation in, 103
spatial amplitude statistics for, 68
urban, 82–85
Weibull parameters, 71–74
X-band radar, 68
X-band reflector, 247
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