Index

Note: Page numbers with “f” denote figures; “t” tables.

A

Abbreviated injury scale (AIS), 3, 832
of Association for Advancement of Automotive Medicine, 3–4
serious injury, 12
severity levels, 4t, 833t
Abrupt hard-over nozzle failures, 104–105
ABS
see American Bureau of Shipping
Acceleration expressions, 618
Acceptance testing, 101
Accumulated risks, 2
Active spacecraft charging control, 533
Defense Satellite Communication System-III B-7 satellite, 533–534
plasma contactor ions and electrons, 534
See also Operational spacecraft charging control
Acute Exposure Guideline Level (AEGL), 213–214
Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator (ASRG), 260–261
Aero-heating, 654
continuum heating, 654
panel wise response analysis, 655
transitional heating calculation, 654
Aerodynamics, 654
control surfaces, 102
drag coefficients, 646t
effects, 36
flow regimes
aerodynamic coefficients, 616
energy accommodation coefficient, 617
heat transfer Stanton number, 616–617
non-dimensional Knudsen number, 615–616
Aerozine-50, 193
Affordable Fission Surface Power System (AFSPS), 264–265
Aggregated risks, 2
See also Individual risk
Air
entrainment model, 294
quality, 58
termination system, 970–971
traffic control organizations, 778–779
traffic data, 789–790
Air-launched rockets, 251
See also Sea launches
Air-space traffic interface management, 777
Airborne, 99–100
Airborne Surveillance Testbed (AST), 176
Aircraft, 777
alternative approaches
air traffic control, 789–790
closure time, 789
launch opportunity, 788–789
launch window, 788
probability of impact vs. flight azimuth, 789, 790f
catastrophic consequences, 777
computing risk
aircraft areas and motion, 780f
aircraft impact probability isopleths, 781–782, 781f
debris effects, 782
function of time, 781
hazardous fragment, 779–780
mitigations effectiveness, 782
probability of consequence, 781
projected area, 780
potential architecture, 779
protection, 778
real-time management, 790–791
debris characteristics, 791
FAA top exercises, 791–792
loss-of-signal, 792
rehearsed procedures, 792
required tools and processes, 790–791
special-purpose system, 791
visual flight rules, 792
risk analysis, 780, 789
risk mitigation approach, 784
affected airspace, 786
aircraft parameters, 787–788
ballistic coefficient, 786
casualty criterion, 786
effects, 786
hazard regions, 785
hazard volume, 788
near-land analysis, 787t
open-ocean analysis, 787t
restricted airspace, 784–785
time, 788
time debris, 788
two-dimensional polygons, 785
vulnerable potential aircraft, 785
risk standards, 778–779
casualty maximum probability, 778
impacting maximum acceptable probability, 778
traffic density, 777
vulnerability
critical aircraft systems, 782–784
fast-running-models, 784
impacts upon wing flow chart, 783f
loss of fuel, 784
significant differences, 782
Aircraft hazard area
development, 756–757
probability, 757–759
results, 755
US catastrophe aversion criterion, 758f
US standards, 756, 756f
Aircraft protection, 24
aircraft safety, 24
AVMs, 24–25
major elements, 24
re-entry vehicle hazards, 24
Risk criteria for national ranges, 24
Aircraft vulnerability model (AVM), 24, 845–847
business jet class, 846
characterization, 846–847
on business jet, 847t
on commercial passenger transport jet, 846t, 847t
impact probabilities, 846
tier 1 thresholds for aircraft, 846t
tier 2 AVM for casualty, 846t
See also Building vulnerability
Airplanes, 251
air-launched rockets, 251
risk analysis perspective, 251
Allen/Egger analytic analysis
entry trajectories, 615, 615f
simple re-entry model, 614f
Alternating current (AC), 260–261
Altitude reservation (ALTRV), 784–785
American National Standard (ANSI), 219
Ammonium perchlorate (AP), 222
Analytical re-entry destruction analysis, 649
calorimetric energy balance, 650
calorimetric survival, 650
demise and survival
of hollow shells, 652
of solid bodies, 651
solid spherical objects, 651f
for titanium and aluminium spheres, 653f
radiative energy balance, 649
radiative survival, 649
See also Re-entry breakup analysis
Angle of attack (AOA), 619
Annual risks, 13
Anti-Ballistic Missile defence radars (ABMD radars), 414–416
Apollo 11 Mission Rule
Book, 400f
for LM operations, 400f
Apollo slidewire system, 52f
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), 475
Application software failures
CAM software, 502
control and safety limits, 502f
control and thruster management function, 501–502
GNC parameters, 501
MVM software, 502
navigation function failures, 501
rendezvous control software, 501
Aquatic fauna, 59–60
ARGUS, 177
optical bench, 178f
Ariane 5 Main Cryotechnic Stage, See EPC
Ariane 5, 170–171
Cryogenic Stage EPC, 171, 174f
Galapagos Islands, 171
modeling validation
airborne surveillance testbed and sensor, 177f
ARGUS optical bench, 178f
Ariane 5 maiden flight 501 re-entry, 176
AST observation for 503 EPC re-entry, 178f
comparison, 180f
measurement data and infra-red measure, 179f
third Ariane 5 flight 503 observation, 176–178
observation, 179–180
missions, 179
objectives, 179
pre-treatment raw data, 180, 183f
video data, 180, 184f
re-entry modeling
dimensioning debris, 171–173
front skirt, 171
rear skirt, 171
synthesis
altitude vs. longitude, 175f, 183
EPC re-entry observation campaigns, 184t
missions and objects, 183–184
observations, 182–183
versions, 181f
VHF
patch antennas, 180, 181f
radar observation system, 180, 181f
video system, 180, 182f
Ascent phase, 173
Assembly, integration and testing (AIT), 9
Assembly tests, 101
Atmosphere control and supply systems control (ACS control), 395
Atmospheric
density model, 645
dispersion modeling, rocket emissions, 198–199
stability classes, 195, 208–209
Atmospheric sound focusing gain (ASFG), 239–240
Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES), 799
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 260
Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), 477, 714, 740
fragmentation analysis method
aluminum inter-stage skin panel, 746f
CATNS, 747
using derivations, 748
input thermal model, 746–747
LOX Saturation vapor pressure, 748, 748f
RP1 saturation vapor pressure, 749f
stagnation point heat flux rates, 745–746
tank internal pressure prediction, 749–750, 749f
key findings, 750
collective risks results, 750–751, 750t
consequence and probability, 754
controlled re-entry risk profile data, 754t
findings, 752–753
fragmentation profile, 753f
individual risk contours, 751–752, 751f
legend, 752f
RCC 321–07 standard set limits, 750
risk profile, 754, 755f
US standards, 753–754
primary products, 741
safety analysis method
BUSV input data, 741–742
controlled re-entry, 741
fragmentation models, 742–743
primary risk metrics, 744
RRAT program data flow, 745f
ship and aircraft hazard area
development, 756–757
probability, 757–759
results, 755
US catastrophe aversion criterion, 758f
US standards, 756, 756f
Autonomous Flight Termination System (AFTS), 102
Autonomous Transfer Vehicle (ATV), 375, 401
approach profile, 407f
range rate profile, 408f
Avifauna
populations, 60
residual alumina content, 60
waders and coastal ecosystems, 60

B

Backup control center (BCC), 389–390
Baikonur/Tyuratam (TB), 907
Ballistic coefficients, 127, 128t
Ballistic trajectory, 613–614
Allen Eggers simple re-entry model, 614f
Allen/Egger entry trajectories, 615, 615f
deceleration, 614–615
exponential atmosphere, 614
maximum heating rate, 614
Band-Aids charts, 818
BCC Activation Team (BAT), 390
Beam divergence control, 802–803
Beam power control, 802–803
Big Crow, 177
Biomedical systems, 68
Bipropellant chemical thrusters, 554–555
BJ, See Business Jet
Blast
hazards, 836
overpressure hazard, 324, 325f
wave propagation conditions, 240, 242f
Blast Danger Area (BDA), 52
Blast scaling, 325–326
blast wave scaling fig, 326f
CBGS scenario, 330
CBM configuration, 328f, 329–330, 329f
L/D ratio, 330
liquid propellant, 331t
MMH/NTO propellant combination, 332, 332f
prelaunch explosion, 330–331
project PYRO test, 326–329, 327f
Body Seal Closure (BSC), 825–826
Boeing Space Environments Team, 559–560
Breakup state vector (BUSV), 108, 150, 607, 738–739, 741
Brode energy equation, 74–75
Brute force approach, 448
acceleration, 449
critical radius and threshold radius, 448f
optimal step-size, 449
potential conjunction, 448
threshold radius equation, 448
Building locations, 41–42
Building vulnerability, 839
air blast threshold criteria, 842
air blast wave damage, 841
building damage and injury, 841
damage approximations, 844t
inert debris vulnerability modeling, 840t
models, 831
psi threshold criterion, 841–842
roof types for building class, 32, 840t
serious injury to occupants, 843f
structural damage to light structures, 842f
threshold values for roof penetration, 839–841, 840t
window breakage, 841
Buk space reactors, 274
Buoyant sources, toxic emissions
AEGLs, 213–214
air entrainment coefficients, 209, 211f
aluminium oxide particulate size ranges, 200
assumptions, 205–206
atmospheric dispersion modeling, 198–199
atmospheric stability, 208–209
cloud or plume dispersion, 212
critical step, 199
Delta II 7925 launch vehicle failure, 203–204, 203f
direct measurement of turbulence, 212
dispersion scenario, 199
downwind concentrations, 210–212
duration of exposure, 213
exhaust cloud radius vs. cloud centroid height, 210f
far field concentration, 209–210, 211f
flight safety toxic dispersion models, 214
Gaussian puffs, or cloud disk elements, 202
ground cloud, 201
hypergol propellant mass calculation, 206
large quantity, 200
launch pad configurations, 201
launch vehicle failures, 202–203
liquid propellants, 200
fireball, 204
reaction pathways, 204–205
normal launch emission source, 199–200
physically-based cloud-rise algorithms, 208
planned emission, 200
rocket exhaust, 197–198
rocket exhaust plumes and fireballs, 208
rocket launch emission evaluation, 198
snapshots, 212
solid propellant fragments, 206–208
Space Shuttle, 200–201, 201f
spherical cloud, 209
thermal decomposition reaction, 206
Titan 34D-9 launch vehicle, 204, 205f
Titan IVB launch vehicle, 201, 202f
toxic dispersion models, 198–199
toxic exhaust plumes emission, 207f
tremendous amounts of water, 201–202
See also Non-buoyant sources, toxic emissions
Burning, 316–317
Business Jet (BJ), 722

C

C-band radars, 414–416
C-language based Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian/Propellant Energetic Response to Mechanical Stimuli (CALE/PERMS), 321
Canadarm-2, 824
Canadian Space Agency (CSA), 375, 401
Capability based approach, 123–124
Cape Canaveral (CC), 907
launch sites, 906
Capsule communicator (CAPCOM), 387
Cast Glance, 177
Casualties, 782
Casualty, 3
expectation, 4
derivations, 109
equation for, 109
failure time and failure mode, 109
Casualty area computations
AIS scale for burn injuries, 145–146, 146f
blast wave effects, 139–140
from blast waves to people in structures, 142f
building classes, 140, 142t
casualty producing events, 131f
characteristics, 136t
composite roof, 138f
concrete reinforced with steel roof, 140f
debris and projected area, 130
debris impact locations, 135f
direct debris effects, 133, 134f
explosive yield function, 140–143, 145f
fireball, 143–144
hazard areas, 130
light metal roof, 137f
maximum casualty areas vs. fragment weight, 148f
modeling roof/floor penetration, 137f
P-I diagrams, 139
primary fire effects, 143
Probit function, 144–145
roof construction, 135f
roof penetration capability, 134
roof structure, 133
scenarios types, 147, 146
secondary fire effects, 143
secondary impact effects, 130–132, 133f
simplification model for casualties, 135f
soft tissue effects, 139
thermal injuries, 143
toxic casualty areas, 147
toxic emitting fragment, 147
unsheltered persons as function of yield, 141f
for vertically falling fragments, 132f
wood roof, 138f
Catastrophe averse requirement, 778
Catastrophic collisions, 584
average, 586, 586f
combination, 585–586
consequences of future collisions, 585
fragments yield distribution, 585f
probability, 584–585, 584f
3U CubeSat and rocket stage, 584f
Catastrophic extravehicular activity shock hazard, 545
Catastrophic launch failures, 202–203
Catastrophic risk, 4
Center, 372
Center for Space Standards and Innovation (CSSI), 446
Center of mass (CoM), 653
Certification testing, 101
Change request number (CR number), 406
Chaser capture interfaces, 481
Checkout tests, 101
Chemical effects, 36
Chemical Propulsion Information Agency (CPIA), 313
Clohessy–Wiltshire (CW) equations, 487
Closed loop failures, 104–105
Closed loop trajectories, 497
Cloud-to-ground lightning events
energy, 967
ground flash, 966–967
lightning flash, 966
return stroke, 967
streak camera image, 966f
Coasting phase, 174
Coefficient of variation (COV), 245
COL module, See Columbus module
Collateral damage, 79
mitigating
custom covers, 82
NASA WSTF, 84
Space Shuttle Forward RCS module, 83f
Space Shuttle OMS/RCS Pod, 83f
WSTF, 82
spaceflight applications, 79
Collateral sensor, 413
Collective risk, 2
Collision avoidance maneuver (CAM), 476–477, 500–501, 508
Collision danger causes, 482
global effects, 482
orbital disturbances, 482
differential accelerations acting, 485–486
drag force of residual atmosphere, 482
solar pressure, 483–484
trajectory deviation calculation, 486
external disturbances effects, 487–492
navigation errors effects, 493–496
thrust error effects, 496–497
Collision protection
active collision protection, 508
control centers of chaser and target, 508
docking interfaces, 508
safety responsibilities, 509f
trajectory development, 508
passive trajectory safety, 505
docking, 505
Hohmann-transfer, 505–506, 505f
straight line transfer, 507–508, 507f
Vx-transfer, 506–507, 506f
Vz-transfer, 506f, 507
Collision risk
collision probability, 468
one-size-fits-all volume-based box method, 468
Orbital Conjunction Message, 469
prediction
in-orbit collision risk, 427–428
risk collision at launch, 428–429
prevention, 420
COPUOS, 420
geostationary orbit, 423–427
ISO, 420
licensing systems, 420–421
low earth orbit, 421–423
protected regions, 421f
Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB), 22, 681, 811
debris risk analysis, 759–760
Columbia public risk analysis
CAIB study, 767–768, 768f
Columbia debris, 768–769
ground risk results, 766t
key results, 764–767
using sheltering, 767
Columbus module (COL module), 375, 376f
TM for, 384
Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite (CRRES), 523
Combustion process, 192, 303
aluminum combustion, 307–308
aluminum droplets burn, 308–309
chemical equilibrium calculations, 306–307
combustion sequence, 306
combustion zone, 303, 308f
droplet flame envelope, 309
gaseous reaction products, 307f
propellant burning surface, 310
propellant surface, 303–306
radiation field, 310
reaction zone characteristics, 309t
solid propellant plume, 306f
Command and control (C&C), 396
Command control process
barriers, 49
interception barrier, 49
safety department, 49
Commercial Transport (CT), 757
Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), 420
Common cause failure modeling (CCF modeling), 807
Communication and data handling (C&DH), 395
Communication failures
link interruptions, 504
manned or unmanned rendezvous missions, 504
satellite navigation, 504
Compact fragments, 663
Compaction, 338
Complementary cumulative distribution function (CCDF), 347
Complex aerodynamic
effects, 174
regimes, 106
Composite overwrapped pressure vessel (COPV), 70, 774
stress rupture, 78
Compressed gases
failure modes, 77
hazards and leakage rate, 76–77
OMS helium tank, 77
Compressed natural gas (CNG), 74
Computer failures, 498–499
computer and limits monitoring scheme, 499–500, 500f
computer voting and state limits monitoring scheme, 499
failure detection by voting computer output, 500f
GNC state vector, 500–501
RV-control function, 500
voting scheme, 499
Confinement by Ground Surface (CBGS), 326–329
Confinement by Missile configuration (CBM configuration), 329–330
Conical shaped charge (CSC), 358
Conjunction, 445–446
Conjunction Summary Messages (CSM), 414
Constant bank angle guidance, 633, 633f
Contamination, 556
transport analysis, 558
Contamination hazard controls, 557–558
design rules and guidelines, 558
contamination transport analysis, 558
design margin, 558
materials selection, 558
thruster plume impact analysis, 558
operational hazard control, 559
in-flight bake-out, 559
vehicle attitude control, 559
Contamination hazard effects, 556
damage to mechanisms, 557
degraded performance
of navigation instruments, 557
of thermal control surfaces, 557
Continuum flow, 618
Continuum heating, 654
Control, 371–372
failures, 113
Control center, 371–372
design considerations, 388–389
key areas, 389
security measures, 389
external events impact mitigation, 389–390
LCC, 372
POCC, 375–376
Convention on International Liability Caused by Space Objects, See Liability Convention
Conventional radars, 413
CORIOLIS acceleration, 618
Corridor approach, 162–163
Cosmos-954, 274–275
Coupled Aero-heating and Thermal Network Solver (CATNS), 742–743
CR number, See Change request number
Crew quarters (CQ), 822–823, 822f
Cryogenic liquids, 187–188
Cryogenics, 71–72
Cube corner reflectors, 796–797
Cube-sat launcher, 519
Cumulative Number, 663–664, 664f
Cumulative risk analysis procedure, 107f
cycles per second (cps), 692–693

D

Danger zones
ground safety rules, 34
launch site perimeter, 34
launchers, 34
Dangling commands, 394
Data bus failures, 498–499
computer and limits monitoring scheme, 499–500, 500f
computer voting and state limits monitoring scheme, 499
failure detection by voting computer output, 500f
GNC state vector, 500–501
RV-control function, 500
voting scheme, 499
Data line coding standard, 858, 858t
Data transfer error detection, 395
Database queries
broad categories, 856–857
database input form, 857f
results, 857
de minimis threshold, 5
Debris
dispersion models, 25
footprint methods, 158
fragments, 19
impact dispersions, 156
mitigation practices, 581
re-entry phase, 174
Debris avoidance maneuver (DAM), 511–512
planning and execution, 472
flight dynamics team, 472
ISS trajectory teams, 473
large prediction errors, 472
restrictions, 473
Russian and NASA operations teams, 472
Debris avoidance operation process, 469
ISS conjunction scenario, 470–471
ISS trajectory operations, 470
late notification conjunctions, 471
maneuver thresholds, 469–470
red threshold, 469–470
yellow threshold, 470
NASA flight dynamics, 470–471
Soyuz emergency escape vehicles, 471
strategy for ISS collision avoidance, 469t
Debris data development, 124
aerodynamic loads, 126–127
ballistic coefficients, 127, 128t
breakup list, 126
breakup state vector, 124
distinct fragments, 124
Expendable Launch Vehicles, 127
fragment characteristics, 124
fragment grouping speed calculations, 125–126
fragment mean ballistic coefficient calculations, 126
fragmentation, 124–125
guidelines for ballistic coefficient uncertainty, 125t
impacting fragments, 125
launch vehicle, 129–130
ranges of maximum velocities computation, 129t
sources in vehicle explosions, 127–129
three sigma low and high limits, 126
Debris risk analysis, 106, 113f, 829–830
breakup state vectors development, 108
casualty expectation computation, 109
cumulative procedure to risk computation, 109–110
debris characteristics, 108
debris to impact propagation, 108
failure probabilities development, 107
fault trees and event trees, 107
hazard identification, 107
impact probability
computation, 108–109
distribution development, 108
See also Risk Management
Debris-generating events, 11
Debye length, 538
Decision authority, 8
Deep dielectric charging
affecting insulators and discharge, 523
spacecraft materials, 523
CRRES, 523
internal or deep dielectric charging, 523
no hard and fast distinction, 523
Deep space missions, innovative, 431
Defence Priority Facility (IDP), 32
Defense Satellite Communication System-III B-7 satellite, 533–534
Deflagration, 316–317
Deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT), 317, 318f
Delayed Detonation Transition (XDT), 317, 318f
Delta II 7925 launch vehicle failure, 203f
Delta II Stage 2, 668–670, 669f
debris from, 670f
impact locations of debris items, 671t
lightweight debris, 672–673
pressure sphere dimensions and dry weights, 670t
propellant system pressurization, 670
propellant tank dimensions and weight, 670t
recovered debris, 671
stainless steel tank, 673–674
wind data for Texas Delta II re-entry, 671t
Delta II Stage 3, 674–675
damage observed on tank, 676, 677f
impact location for, 678
initial state and impact location, 675
laboratory analysis results, 675–676
maximum temperature ranges, 678–679
motor casing
after recovery, 676f
found in Argentina, 679
recovered in Argentina, 679–680, 680f
recovered in Thailand, 678f
re-entry analyses, 676
remains recovered in Argentina, 679f
Star-48B rocket motor, 674f
Star48B properties, 675t
Thailand Star 48B motor case, 676–678
Ti-6Al-4V alloy, 676–678
Delta launch vehicle (DLT launch vehicle), 906
Delta-V, 578
Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB), 222–223
Design for Demise (D4D), 771
Design margin, 558
Destructive re-entry analysis, 638–639
challenges, 640
demands on explosion model, 665
destruction analysis for SC, 639–640
destruction events during re-entry, 639, 639f
material properties effect, 640
materials and mass specific heat storage, 642f
melting temperatures of materials, 641, 641f
multidisciplinary process, 640
object analysis methods, 644
re-entry vehicles differences, 638t
specific heat capacity, 640
system inputs and outputs, 665, 666t
tool interaction sequence, 666f
Detection systems, 412
Detonation, 316–317
DFO risk analysis, 227–228
blast wave propagation conditions, 240, 242f
building yield histogram, 231
large ELV yield histogram, 233f
simulation of vehicle accidents, 231f
solid propellants impact, 232f
vehicle trajectories, 231
yield factor vs. impact velocity, 231–233, 232f
defining exposed population and window inventory, 233
assigning population centers, 235f
sample of window inventory link, 235f
structure, window, population data determination, 234f
description of phenomenology
Aberdeen Proving Ground, 220–221
atmospheric condition, 220
atmospheric focusing of blast waves, 219f
explosive effects, 219
far-field overpressure levels, 220
far-field overpressure propagation conditions, 221f
launch accident scenarios, 218
safe design of launch operations, 222
sonic velocity, 219
weather balloon observation, 221–222
detailed DFO approach result, 248
detailed DFO risk analysis, 227–228
flowchart, 230f
Monte Carlo simulations, 229
physical processes, 228–229, 229f
flowchart, 230f
Monte Carlo simulations, 229
overpressure attenuation relationships, 240–243
amplified overpressure in caustic focusing region, 243–244
DFO, 243f
gradient and inversion relationships, 243
physical processes, 228–229, 229f
simplified screening models, 222
maximum credible yield screening analysis, 222–223
simplified risk-based screening analysis, 223–227
terrain type and elevation irregularities, 234, 236f
2D ray tracing performance, 236–237
ASFG, 239–240
focusing zones, 241f
hemispherical symmetric isotropic blast wave propagation, 238f
meteorological conditions, 237–238
ray path direction change according, 239f
ray tracing on flat terrain, 240f
using Snell’s Law, 238–239
two dimensional model, 238f
window breakage model, 244
distant communities, 244
duration-dependent behavior, 244–245
high fidelity modeling tool, 244
using parameters, 245
physics-basedmodeling approach, 244
Direct current (DC), 261–262
Disposal operations, 427
Distant focusing overpressure (DFO), 222, 830
maximum credible yield screening analysis
DDESB guidelines, 222–223
no damage limits for surface explosions, 223f
screening procedures, 222
simplified risk-based screening analysis, 223–224
acceptable risk levels, 227
ACTA models, 226
atmospheric focus factor probability distribution, 225f
casualties risk equation, 227
conservative rule-of-thumb, 226–227
probability of breakage for average window panes, 226f
simplified DFO risk analysis results, 228f
simplified power law relationship, 224–225
using steps, 224
vulnerable community building inventory, 225
well-designed FTS, 224
DLT launch vehicle, See Delta launch vehicle
Document configuration
ATV approach profile, 407f
ATV RANGE RATE profile, 408f
flight director responsibility, 406–407
flight rule designation, 406
Hazard Control indication, 406
technical or functional areas, 406
Down conductor system, 971
Downrange component, 162–163
Draft environmental impact statement (DEIS), 353–354
Drag devices, 589
Drag-thru risk
caution and warning capability, 823
for CQ, 822–823
ISS program, 823
for JEM temporary crew quarters, 823f
MM-OD penetrations, 822–823
mobile transporter risk comparison, 821f
PRA study, 823
DTMBARLIER + CIRA88 model, 613
Dynamic pressure limit, 628

E

Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), 513
Earth orbit
objects distribution
Apogee–Perigee distribution, 432–433, 432f
using disposed orbits, 433–434
frequency, 433
inclination distribution, 433f
non-uniform distribution, 431
perturbations complicate mission planning, 431–432
semi-synchronous regime, 432
Earth termination system, 971–972
Eastern range (ER), 226
Electrical connectors, 69
Electrical discharges, 964–965
occurrence probability
lightning flash density, 965
lightning location systems, 965
Electrical systems, 575
See also Pressurant systems Propellant systems
Electro explosive device (EED), 70
explosive circuits, 70–71
faraday caps, 70
Electro-optical sensors, 413
Electrodynamic propulsion, 592–593, 592f
electrodynamic vehicle, 594, 594f
ESPA ring, 595
inboard node, 594
JAXA, 593
METS, 593
PMG experiment, 593
ProSEDS, 593
rotating system altitude rates, 594–595, 595f
TEPCE, 593–594
TSS-1R, 593
Electromagnetic environment, 34
Electromagnetic pump (EM pump), 265–266
Electrostatic discharge (ESD), 71
Emergency Escape System (EES), 50–51
constellation program rail, 53f
design safety factors, 52–53
future design, 53
rescue chair entry, 54f
safety factors, 54–55
Saturn V rocket, 51
Emergency Response Planning Guideline (ERPG), 213–214
End of mission (EOM), 374
End-of-life debris mitigation measurement
debris in Earth orbit, 572
guidelines, 572
mitigation measure guidelines, 575
aforementioned measures, 576
communications and electrical systems, 576
IADC guidelines, 576–577
long-term preservation, 576
NASA standard, 576
passivation measures, 575
mitigation measure practices, 577
batteries and heat pipes, 578
delta-V, 578
depletion burns, 577
designing spacecraft and launch vehicle, 578
drag-augmentation devices, 579
Globalstar constellation, 579
GTOs, 580
higher altitude spacecraft, 578–579
LEO commercial communications networks, 579
liquid or gaseous propulsion systems, 577
MEOP, 577–578
multi-national Sea Launch organization, 580
Proton Block-DM and Briz stages, 581
Proton Briz-M stages, 577
recommendations, 581
post-mission fragmentations, 572
electrical systems, 575
pressurant systems, 574–575
propellant systems, 572–574
End-states are Evacuation (EVAC), 813–814
Energydispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDXS), 672
Environment protection
action plans and results, 56–61
Ariane 5 analysis, 58
air quality, 58
aquatic fauna, 59–60
avifauna, 60
noise and vibration, 59
ozone layer, 58–59
physico-chemical quality, 59
vegetation, 59
communication of results, 60
geographical and ecological context
CSG’s territory, 56
final assembly building, 62f
Guiana Space Center, 56, 57f
integrated environmental approach, 56
ground activities, 60–61
inventory, 55
methodology
combustion products, 57
modeling and dispersion calculations, 57–58
simulation input data, 58
parameters, 55
regulatory context
CNES, 55–56
ground activities, 56
state services, 55
treatment systems, 61
Environmental Assessment (EA), 353
Environmental impact statement (EIS), 353, 987–988
Environmental protection, 32
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 985
EPC, 171, 174f
parts, 171
re-entry phase, 174
Equations of motion, 619–620
Equilibrium hypothesis, 620
atmospheric density modelling, 621
atmospheric models, 622
azimuth of velocity vector, 621–622
flight path angle, 620
weight and centrifugal force relationship, 620
Equilibrium trajectory, 627
equations for, 627
lift ceiling altitude equation, 628
maximal ceiling, 628
Erosion analysis, 558
Europe’s Ariane launch vehicles, 574
European Space Agency (ESA), 401, 740
operational development phase, 419
preliminary activities, 419
preparatory phase elements, 419
European Space Agency SPENVIS (ESA SPENVIS), 530
European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF), 376, 376f
Evacuation, 189
Event trees, 107, 114
EVOLVE model, 663
Exclusion area, 12–13
Expected casualties (EC), 719–720, 726
Expected Fatalities (EF), 736
Expendable launch vehicle (ELV), 114, 977–978
Explosions
ascent phase explosions
ballistic trajectory, 314
early vs. later flight impacts, 315f
later flight, 314–315
cloud analysis, 644
computer modeling
space booster SRMs, 324f
SRMGI model, 323
STS aft segments, 323
Titan upper segments, 323
detonation hazard, 318
capability, 319
Cassini Titan IV SRMU segment, 319f
probability, 319, 320f
detonation response, 316–317
DDT, 317, 318f
SDT response, 317, 317f
XDT, 317, 318f
diameter, 319–320
fallback secondary explosions
delta II explosion, 316f
impact crater delta II explosion, 316f
Launch Complex 17, 315
solid motor fragment, 315–316
pre-launch to flight phase explosions, 313
Chinese long march 3B launch accident, 314f
nuclear material, 314
VLS-1 pre-launch accident, 313f
processes, 192
solid propellant experimental testing
critical diameter test apparatus, 322f
HC/Al/AP, 320–321
PIRAT, 321–323
propellant testing data, 321t
PVF2, 321
SOPHY program, 321
Explosive combustion, 660–661
Explosive destruction during re-entry, 659
destructive re-entry analysis of fragments
analysis system inputs and outputs, 665, 666t
analysis tool interaction sequence, 666f
demands on explosion model, 665
explosion likelihood development, 660, 660f
explosive environment generation, 659
fragment length number of fragments
A/M distribution density, 665
cumulative Number, 663–664, 664f
ejection velocity, 665
EVOLVE model, 663
probabilistic explosive destruction process, 662
discretization process, 663, 664f
Lc and A/M correlation, 663f
NASA explosion model, 662
re-entry explosion phenomenology, 660–661
explosive combustion, 660–661
explosive detonation, 662
explosive energy, 662
explosive flow field generation, 661f
relation for shock speed and position, 662
transient gas dynamics, 661f
Exponential charging law, 525
Exposure Response Function (ERF), 215
External disturbance effects
on trajectory evolution, 487, 488f
initial tangential boost, 490f, 491f, 492, 494f
lowest trajectory, 487
revolutions, 488–492, 489f, 490f
solar pressure in GEO, 488
tangential impulse, 488, 489f
Extravehicular activity (EVA), 387–388, 401, 511, 513, 825
hazards, 547–548
electrical shock, 548
floating-potential measurement unit data, 549
negative and positive floating-potential, 549–550
positive floating-potential hazard, 549
U.S. extravehicular mobility unit, 549
toxic propellant residue hazard
constraints, 560–561
crew extravehicular activity suits, 561
fuel-oxidizer reaction products, 560
NASA Johnson Space Center Toxicology Group, 561
NASA White Sands Test Facility laboratory tests, 561
Service Module surfaces, 560
thruster-induced contamination, 559–560
Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU), 825–826
location of potentially exposed surfaces, 827f

F

Facilities Classified for Protection of The Environment (ICPE), 32, 56
Failure detection isolation and recovery system (FDIR), 503
Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA), 107, 392, 806
Failure probability development
casualty area computations
AIS scale for burn injuries, 145–146, 146f
blast wave effects, 139–140
from blast waves to people in structures, 142f
building classes, 140, 142t
casualty producing events, 131f
characteristics, 136t
composite roof, 138f
concrete reinforced with steel roof, 140f
debris and projected area, 130
direct debris effects, 133, 134f
explosive yield function, 140–143, 145f
fireball, 143–144
hazard area and hazard areas, 130
light metal roof, 137f
maximum casualty areas vs. fragment weight, 148f
modeling roof/floor penetration, 137f
P-I diagrams, 139
primary fire effects, 143
Probit function, 144–145
roof construction and debris impact locations, 135f
roof penetration capability, 134
roof structure, 133
scenarios types, 118, 147
secondary fire effects, 143
secondary impact effects, 130–132, 133f
simplification model for casualties, 135f
soft tissue effects, 139
thermal injuries, 143
toxic casualty areas, 147
toxic emitting fragment, 147
unsheltered persons as function of yield, 141f
for vertically falling fragments, 132f
wood roof, 138f
trajectory input data development, 120
aerodynamic breakup criteria, 124
buffer zone and ILL, 122–123
capability based approach, 123–124
dispersion effect of normal trajectories, 123f
downrange component, 121
flight safety analyses, 120
flight termination criteria, 121, 121f, 124
flight variations, 120
malfunction trajectories, 121–122
malfunction turn curves, 122, 127f
performance variations, 121
pre-failure trajectory dispersions, 121
6DOF flight dynamics computer program, 122
trajectory, subvehicle point and IIP, 121f
Failure tolerance requirements, 497
ATV and HTV, 498
contingency failure, 498
functional redundancy, 498
implementation, 497
malfunction and robustness, 498
rendezvous operations, 498
False alarms, 446
Far field effects, 219
Fault trees, 107
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 22, 784–785
Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA), 8
Figures of Merit (FOM), 812
Filters, 449
characteristics of satellite orbits, 451
perigee-apogee filter, 449, 450f
series of iterations, 451
using Taylor-series approach, 451
3-dimensional relative geometry, 450, 450f
See also Sieves
Final environmental impact statement (FEIS), 353–354
Final Safety Analysis Report (FSAR), 264
Finding Of No Significant Impact (FONSI), 353
Finite difference (FD), 244
Fire protection
buildings, 48
rapid escape chutes, 48
road network, 49
smoke evacuation, 48
space center, 48
sprinkler systems, 48
surveillance, 48
Fireball, 143–144
reactions, 204
Firmware controllers (FWC), 395
First federal law, 2–3
First flight tests
ATV-2 supply vehicle, 703
HTV2 supply vehicle, 703–704
altitude-time history for, 705f
initiation, 704–706
overview, 705f
REBR
ground track, 707f
impact location, 706f
operations, 703
First rebound hypothesis, 622–624
First-order risk assessment, 445–446
brute force approach, 448
acceleration, 449
critical radius and threshold radius, 448f
optimal step-size, 449
potential conjunction, 448
threshold radius equation, 448
conjunction analysis, 446
satellite positions and velocities, 446
TLEs and state-vector propagation, 446–447
RK methods, 447
USSTRATCOM and CelesTrak, 447
Fleet Satellite Communications satellite (FltSatCom satellite), 964
Flight Control Operations Handbook (FCOH), 399, 409–410
Flight control team (FCT), 383
Flight director
authority, 410
responsibility, 406–407
Flight dynamic analysis, 653
Flight envelope, 627
in altitude/velocity, 629–630, 630f
in deceleration/velocity, 630–631, 631f
Flight environment effects
charging by auroral electrons, 525
capacitance, 526
exponential capacitor charging equation, 525
spacecraft capacitance effects, 527t
voltages calculations, 526–527
current balance models
spacecraft surface interactions, 524–525
structural charging interactions, 524–525
international space station, 527
dielectric film, 529
electrical circuit, 529f
using equation, 530
physical processes, 527–528
simple heuristic, 528f
solar array floating potential, 528
spacecraft charging, analysis tools for
department of defense, 530
European Space Agency, 531
handbooks and standards, 530
modeling and analysis tools, 530
NASA, 530–531
SPENVIS Web page, 530
Flight hardware (F/H), 65, 71
design standards, 65–66
Flight hazard area, 92
Flight path angle (FPA), 620
Flight risk control, 9
accidentological analysis, 34
danger zones
ground safety rules, 34
launch site perimeter, 34
launchers, 34
flight safety mission, 35
flight termination system
launch vehicle’s propulsion, 35
liquid propellant motor, 35
solid propellant motor, 35
ground support facilities, 35
implementation, 34–35
intervention criteria, 35
maximum energy, 34
See also Ground risk control
Flight rules
Apollo 11 Mission Rule
Book, 400f
for LM operations, 400f
convention, 407
document configuration
ATV approach profile, 407f
ATV range rate profile, 408f
flight director responsibility, 406–407
flight rule designation, 406
Hazard Control indication, 406
technical or functional areas, 406
documentation, 405
flight rule books, 405
flight-specific books, 405
technical and programmatic aspects, 405–406
flight-specific decisions, 403
history, 397
ISS Joint Flight Rule
B1–2 Flight Rule Purpose, 402f
B1–3 Real-time Operating Policy, 404f
B1–4 Mission Management Team, 402f
B2–1 Power Connector Inhibits, 403f
E2–31 MSU Management, 404f
limitation, 410
mission requirements, 401
operations constraints, 401–402
pre-mission decisions, 402–403
pre-planned decisions, 403, 405
production process, 407–409
flight rules changes, 409
Mission Action Request, 409–410
rules requirring concurrence, 409
use in spaceflight, 397–398
within ISS, 399–401
ISS program, 401
Kranz’s experiences, 398
MEL nature, 399
mission loss, 398
mission rules, 399
pre-coordinated operations products, 399
Flight safety risk management, 90
Flight safety system malfunctions, 107
Flight termination system (FTS), 98–99, 218
airborne, 99–100
airborne AFTS, 102
components, 99
flight termination actions, 102
key features, 98–99
launch vehicle’s propulsion, 35
liquid propellant motor, 35
RCC 319 structure, 101f
requirements, 98–99
RLVs and UAV, 102–103
solid propellant motor, 35
tests types, 101
typical flight safety system, 100f
vehicle malfunctions, 101–102
See also Range safety system
Floating Potential Measurement Unit (FPMU), 535–536, 536f
Fluid dumping
feathering constraints, 567
Space Shuttle Orbiter water dump damage mitigation
constraints development, 570
feathering angle α/β pair combinations, 568
field of view, 568, 571f
U.S. Laboratory water dump damage mitigation, 567
β gimbal assembly β-rotations, 568
feathering angles for solar array wings, 567–568
field of view, 569f
solar array feathering angles, 570f
U.S. Laboratory water venting, 568f
video images, 567
Fluid venting
feathering constraints, 567
Space Shuttle Orbiter water dump damage mitigation
constraints development, 570
feathering angle α/β pair combinations, 568
field of view, 568, 571f
U.S. Laboratory water dump damage mitigation, 567
β gimbal assembly β-rotations, 568
feathering angles for solar array wings, 567–568
field of view, 569f
solar array feathering angles, 570f
U.S. Laboratory water venting, 568f
video images, 567
Flux models, 412
Force expressions, 619
Fragment length number
A/M distribution density, 665
cumulative Number, 663–664, 664f
ejection velocity, 665
EVOLVE model, 663
Fragment mass, 784
Fragment penetration vulnerability, 843–844
Fragmentation, 124–125, 655
by mechanical fracture of joint, 656f
by mechanical loads, 655–656
SC model before fragmentation event, 655f
Fragmentation analysis method, 644
aluminum inter-stage skin panel, 746f
CATNS, 747
using derivations, 748
input thermal model, 746–747
LOX Saturation vapor pressure, 748, 748f
RP1 saturation vapor pressure, 749f
stagnation point heat flux rates, 745–746
tank internal pressure prediction, 749–750, 749f
Fragments, 108
France, 416
emitting and receiving antennas, 416, 418f
French Air Force, 416
GRAVES radar, 418, 418f
transmitter site, 416
transmitting antennas, 416–418
Free molecular flow, 647
Free Piston Stirling Engine (FPSE), 264–265
Front skirt, 171
Fuel-oxidizer reaction products, 560
Full power years (FPY), 264–265
Full stack intact impact (FSII), 359
Functional hazard analysis (FHA), 392

G

Gas explosions, 324
Gases storage and handling safety
burst failure, 76f
CNG in automobiles, 74
gas during ground operations, 75
minimizing effective time under pressure, 80
Columbia accident, 80–81
COPV temperature, 80
loading process, 81–82
mitigating collateral damage
custom covers, 82
NASA WSTF, 84
Space Shuttle Forward RCS module, 83f
Space Shuttle OMS/RCS Pod, 83f
WSTF, 82
operating in ground facilities
COPVs, 80
ground operation schedules, 80
pressurized components, 79
SSPF and KSC, 81f
pressurized gases, 74
shrapnel and fragmentation analysis, 75–76
spherical gas expansion, 75
stored energy considerations
Brode energy equation, 74–75
potential effects of explosion energy, 75
stored gas energy equation, 75
Gauss equations, 611–612
Gaussian dispersion models, 195
Gaussian modeling assumption, 195
General Perturbations (GP), 414
General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS), 337
RTG/MMRTG structure, 337
Geological phenomena, 30
Geometric optics, 237
Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO), 420, 477, 482
coordinated station-keeping
using orbital parameters, 425
seven Astra satellites, 425f
coordination with operators, 427
disposal operations, 427
drift orbit
with high eccentricity, 426f
with low eccentricity, 426f
injection, 426
longitude changing, 426
longitudes and frequencies management
ITU, 424
orbital position and frequency slot, 424
navigation corridor, 423, 424f
problems, 425–427
solar pressure, predominant in, 484f
space surveillance data, 423
station keeping zone, 423, 424f
traffic control, 423–424
typical station keeping window, 423f
See also Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
Geostationary orbits, 984
Geostationary transfer orbits (GTO), 416, 580
Geosynchronous orbits, 984
Gibbs free energy, 204, 300–301
Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM), 772–773
Globalstar constellation, 579
Grand Réseau Adapté à la Veille Spatiale system (GRAVES system), 416
emitting and receiving antennas, 416, 418f
principle, 418f
Graphite Epoxy Motor (GEM), 203–204, 323
Gravity force model, 645
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 730–731
Ground handling, 72
Ground risk control, 9
electromagnetic environment, 34
for flight systems, 33
GROUND support facilities, 33
objectives, 33
requirements
ground range safety, 32
Kourou launch site, 32
Range Space Safety Regulations, 32
regulations, 32
safety, 32–33
space vehicle integration, 33
space activities, 33
profession’s capitalization, 33
supervision, 33
See also Flight risk control
Ground support equipment (GSE), 66
design details
biomedical systems and materials, 68–69
electrical, 69
explosive devices, 70–71
pressure systems, 69–70
design practices
fluid carts, 68
fluid servicing cart, 67–68
payload processing flows, 68
processing of flight hardware, 67
sources of information, 67
electrical, 69
ground support hazards, 66
safety documentation, 66–67
safety process, 66
safety requirements, 66
integrated hazards, 73
corollary, 73
end-to-end analyses, 73
environmental hazards, 73
launch and possible return phases, 73
mechanical and electromechanical devices
cryogenics, 71–72
flight hardware, 71
ground handling, 72
oxygen systems, 72
propellants, 71
software safety, 72–73
solar arrays, 71
Guidance, Navigation and Control (GNC), 406, 475, 481
Guidance system failures, 113

H

H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV), 401, 477, 546–547, 824, 824f
Hazard, 86
chemical concentrations, 197–198
containment, 88
control indication, 406
volume, 788
zones, 36
aerodynamic effects, 36
effects, 36
explosive products, 36
individual operators, 36
kinematic effects, 36
precaution, 36
Hazard identification, 107, 112, 721
event trees, 114
failure categories, 112–114
control failures, 113
guidance system failures, 113
immediate breakup, 112
malfunction turn, 115f
staging/jettison failures, 114
failure modes, 114
hazard thresholds for debris
building classes, uses and roof types, 750t
characteristics, 722
compact fragments, 736
impacts on aircraft, 754
impacts on waterborne vessels, 724
penetration threshold values, 757
on people and buildings, 722
ships for category, 760t, 762t
threshold values for roof penetration, 754t
tier 1 thresholds for aircraft, 766t
typical injury thresholds, 731t
used in US for building structures, 722
sample abort mode event tree, 120f
sample top level RLV event tree, 116f
Hazardous command identification, 391–392
command evaluation, 393
documentation, 393
system safety
analysis process, 391–392, 392f
analysis tools, 392
Hazardous command implementation
dangling commands, 394
hardware error prevention, 394–395
single event upset, 394
software error prevention, 394–395
two-step commanding, 393–394
Hazardous debris, 12
Hazardous effect zones, 9
blast and flying fragment zones, 38
pyrotechnic regulations, 38
representation, 42f
specialist literature, 38–41
thresholds, 38, 39t
toxic effect zones, 38
toxic fallout calculation results, 37f
Heat flux density thermochemical model, 291–292
Heavy lift space launch boosters, 197–198
Helmholtz free energy, See Gibbs free energy
Heuristic International Space Station charging model, 528f
electrical circuit, 529f
High Elliptical Orbits (HEO), 416
Higher fidelity models, 7
Higher frequency radars, 414–416
Hopkinson scaling law, 325–326
HTV Control Panel (HCP), 824, 825f
failure comparison
using drag-thru cables, 823–824
HTV and JAXA, 824
HTV rendezvous, 824–825
JEM, 824
PCS, 824
PRA, 824
HTV2 supply vehicle, 703–704
acceleration magnitude, 707f, 708f, 711f
altitude-time history for, 705f
data for, 706
initiation, 704–706
overview, 705f
rotation rate, 709f, 710f
temperature profile, 707, 708f
Hubble Space Telescope (HST), 379
Human Reliability Assessment modeling (HRA modeling), 807
Human vulnerability
characterization, 832
hazard mechanisms, 832
injury severity
AIS, 832, 833t
anatomic structure, 832–833
body part sensitivity, 837t
burns, 834
11 ft-lb threshold, 835f
explosive debris, 836–837
impacting debris, 834–836
injury consequences, 836t
injury thresholds, 835t
mechanical injuries, 833
non-toxic propellants, 837t
penetrating injuries, 836t
seven-digit code, 832
severity levels for toxic injuries, 833t
susceptible persons, 833
thermal hazards, 838–839
thermal injuries, 834
toxic hazards, 837–838
toxic propellants and by-products, 837t
risk measures, 832
See also Structural vulnerability
Hybrid verified interval propagation, 464
Hydrocarbon rubber binder-aluminum fuel-ammonium perchlorate oxidizer (HC/Al/AP), 320–321
Hydrogen chloride, 213
Hydrological phenomena, 30
Hypergolic liquid propellants, 192
Hypergolic oxidizers, 193
Hypergols, 192–193, 200

I

Immediate breakup failures, 112
Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH), 92–93
Immersion heat probes, 310
Impact covariance matrix, 157
Impact Limit Lines (ILL), 122–123
Impact probability computation
failure time and failure mode, 109
fragment and population center, 108
impact covariance matrix, 108
one-or-more fragment impacts, 109
Impact probability distributions, 108
In-flight bake-out, 559
In-orbit collision risk, 427
annual collision risk, 427t
Iridium 33 and Cosmos 2251 satellites, 427
ISS and launch trajectory, 429f
JSpOC, 428
monitoring procedure, 428
using space surveillance data, 427
In-sky-laser safety
hot air balloons and hang-gliders, 800–802
laser beam diameter, 801f
Nd:YAG lasers, 800
Independent plant evaluation (IPE), 806
Individual risk, 2
Inertial measurement units, 96
Inhibited red fuming nitric acid (IRFNA), 193, 573
Injection, 426
Instantaneous Impact Points (IIP), 120, 162–163
Insult environment characterization, 340
launch vehicle and spacecraft accidents, 341
radioactive material, 341–342
space missions, 341
testing and computational simulation programs, 340–341
type and magnitude, 341
Integrated hazards, 73
corollary, 73
end-to-end analyses, 73
environmental hazards, 73
launch and possible return phases, 73
Integrated medical model (IMM), 816
Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), 576–577
Interagency Nuclear Safety Review Panel (INSRP), 260, 355–356
Interception barrier, 49
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM), 864–865, 871–873
Internal charging
affecting insulators and discharge, 523
CRRES, 523
internal or deep dielectric charging, 523
no hard and fast distinction, 523
spacecraft materials, 523
International Association of Geodesy (IAG), 798–799
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), 346
International Laser Ranging Service (ILRS), 796, 798–799
ACES and ILRS, 799
elevation mask, 799–800
Go, NoGo flag, 799–800
International protocols, 348
using space nuclear systems, 348–349
applicability, 350
assistance to states, 350–351
consultations, 350
defense-in-depth, 352
foreseeable, 350
international treaties, 349
liability and compensation, 351
notification, 350
preamble, 349–350
responsibility, 351
review and revision, 351–352
safety assessment, 350
settlement of disputes, 351
UN principles are non-binding, 352
U.S. environmental process for launch
FONSI, 353
using forms, 353
launch radiological impact analysis, 354–355
NEPA, 352–353
NEPA compliance process, 354f
U.S. launch approval process, 355
International Scientific Optical Network (ISON), 416
geostationary orbit, 416
HEO and GTO, 416
telescopes, 417f
United States Space Surveillance Network, 416
International Sea Launch platform, 899
International space station (ISS), 10, 74, 375, 441, 511, 535, 535f, 717–718, 740–741, 802, 805
ATV-2 supply vehicle, 703
cameras, 565
contamination/erosion planes, 566
erosion plane plot for Russian vehicle approach, 566, 566f
keep-out zones, 567
robotic camera assets, 567
truss-mounted robotic cameras, 566
visiting vehicle proximity operations, 567
charging instrumentation and measurements
Boeing’s Langmuir probe reduction process, 538–539
Debye length, 538
direct validation, 539–540
floating-potential probe, 538
FPMU telemetry, 538, 539f
ionospheric temperature and density, 540f
charging model development
floating-potential map, 542–544, 544f
frequency occurrence, 542–544, 543f
historical probability, 542
International Reference Ionosphere, 542
performance, 541
plasma density and temperature, 541
Plasma Interaction Model, 540–541
validation, 542f, 543f
collision avoidance maneuvers
collision risk determination, 468–469
ISS debris avoidance operations process, 469–473
notification criteria, 470–471
orbital debris avoidance, 467–468
planning and executing, 472–473
collisions in space, 442
command software architecture, 396f
debris population, 442
catalogued space debris objects, 443f
LEO and GEO environment, 444
post-mission analysis, 442–443
problem definition, 444–445
real situation in space, 444
distribution of facilities, 378f
F2 ionospheric plasma, 535–536
first-order risk assessment, 442
brute force, 448–449
TLEs and state-vector propagation, 446–447
flight rules, 399–402
HTV2 supply vehicle for, 703
integrated flight control team, 387–388
interfaces for, 383f
magnitude, 537
MCC for, 377
mitigation strategies, 559
national space agencies, 401
operations, 559
orbit debris in low earth orbit, 441–442, 441f
partner’s control rooms, 386f
payloads, 377
plasma and spacecraft diagnostics package, 537
preflight modeling, 536–537
shock risk
EMU and LCVG, 825–826
during EVA, 825
magnetically induced voltages, 826f
nominal EVA risk vs. positive potential, 827f
non-conformance report, 826–827
PCU, 825
PRA, 826
surface location, 827f
solar and geomagnetic activity, 538
solar arrays, 562
bipropellant thruster particles, 562–563
Boeing Space Environments Team, 562
feathering constraints, 564f, 565f
15A assembly stage, 563f
operational constraints, 565
operations add complexity, 564–565
plume impingement angle, 563–564
station attitude control thruster, 563f
thruster-induced erosion events, 564
spacecraft charging hazards, 544
electromagnetic compatibility effects, 545–546
electromagnetic interference, 545–546
extravehicular activity touch-temperature violations, 545
plasma contactor unit tiger team, 544–545
spacecraft charging processes, 535
sun tracking photovoltaic arrays, 535
International Space Station PRA model (ISS PRA model), 813
assumptions, 817
Band-Aids charts, 818
depth of analysis, 816
driver or top contributor, 816
EVAC, LOC and LOCV, 813–814
guidelines, 817
IMM, 816
ISS PRA end state relationships, 814f
mission objectives, 815
MM/OD, 816
Monte Carlo simulation, 818
PRA addresses, 820
probabilistic results, 815
program activities, 819–820
results and changes, 818
risk analyst or engineer, 818
risk team’s job, 818–819
risk trades, 814–815, 819f
International Space Station software, 395
ISS command software architecture, 396f
PCA/ACS system
controls, 396
hazards for, 395
“must work” function, 396
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 424
Ion Beam Shepherd (IBS), 596
Iridium, 436
constellation, 421
Iridium-Cosmos collision, 445
Irreversible Effects Thresholds (SEI), 38
Isolated lightning protection systems, 47
ISS Mission Management Team (IMMT), 375, 401

J

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), 401, 593, 824
Japanese Experimental Module (JEM), 822–823
Joint Flight Rules Control Board (JFRCB), 409
Joint Space Operations Center (JSPOC), 517–518
mission, 412–413

K

Keep-out Zone, 476–477
Keldish Institute of Applied Mathematics (KIAM), 416
Kennedy Space Center (KSC), 81f, 240–243
Kernel density estimation (KDE), 167–168

L

L/D impact dispersion model, 156f
L/D ratio, See Lift to drag ratio
Lagrange Planetary Equations, 447
LAser GEOdynamics Satellite (LAGEOS), 795–796
Launch Abort System (LAS), 51
Launch chronology
abbreviations and acronyms, 851t
database element definitions, 855, 855t
database elements, 851t
reference documents and sources, 854, 854t
Launch Control Center (LCC), 372
range safety, 374
safety risk on launch site, 372–374
Space Shuttle Challenger explosion, 374
See also Mission control center (MCC)
Launch Emergency Operations Center (LEOC), 361
Launch Escape System (LES), 51
Launch mission, 715–717
Launch pad escape system design
Apollo and shuttle program EESs, 51
Apollo slidewire system, 52f
Saturn V rocket, 51
EES designers, 51
human spaceflight, 50–51
key design safety factors, 52–53
LES and LAS, 51
NASA’s Constellation Program, 53
Launch safety, 10
annual risks, 13
exclusion area, 12–13
explosive hazards, 11
final protection tier, 11
flight termination criteria, 11
health risk, 13–14
launch hazard areas identification, 10
launch operations, 12
malfunction trajectory, 11
sheltering, 12
space access, 10
surveillance, 13
tolerable risks, 12
Xinhua news agency, 10
Launch site processing issues, 358–359
Launch site safety, 8–9
flight risk controls, 9
ground risk control concepts, 9
mission and flight hardware designers, 9
Launch vehicle, 276
data, 849–850
failures, 202–204
liquid and solid propellants, 276
liquid fueled rocket circa, 276–277, 277f
propellant pros and cons, 277, 278t
properties, 279t
threat environment, 277–278
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), 321, 323
Lethal Effects Thresholds (SEL), 38
Liability Convention, 349, 714
Lift to drag ratio (L/D ratio), 622, 634
bank angle calculation, 635–636
commanded bank, 636
follow up of drag reference profile, 637f
FPA, 635
lateral guidance, 636, 637f
PID, 636
reference trajectory in deceleration/velocity, 635f
total velocity, 636
trajectory characteristics, 634–635
Light Weight Radioisotope Heater Unit (LWRHU), 310, 336–337
Lighting Launch/flight Commit Criteria (LLCC), 973
Lightning, 961
discharges, 962
cloud-to-ground discharges, 962–963
cloud-to-ground flashes, 963f
visual appearance, 962
flash, 966
parameters, 967, 968t
stroke, 967
Lightning protection systems (LPS), 961
command control process
barriers, 49
interception barrier, 49
safety department, 49
external and internal protection measures, 45
external components, 970
air termination system, 970–971
down conductor system, 971
earth termination system, 971–972
external protection schemes, 45
fire protection
buildings, 48
rapid escape chutes, 48
road network, 49
smoke evacuation, 48
space center’s, 48
sprinkler systems, 48
surveillance, 48
grounded objects, 45
handling and lifting
pyrotechnic objects, 49
pyrotechnic stage transfers, 49
interception efficacy, 45
internal protection, 972
pad and vehicle on pad, 972–973
vehicle, 972
launch pads
aerial interconnections, 47
higher efforts, 47
isolation, 47
launch complexes, 47
lightning rods, 47
projects, 49f, 50f
protection schemes, 45, 46f
protection towers, 47
theoretical analysis, 47–48
LLCC, 973
flight path, 973
rules, 973
non-conventional, 974
parameters
action integral, 969
indirect effect, 88
launch pad, 101
peak current, 968
progress, 975
spaceport, 974
thunderclouds
charge separation, 962
shape and size, 961–962
tripole charge structure, 962
vehicle triggered lightning
Apollo 12, 964
bipolar discharge, 963–964
control and guidance system, 964
FltSatCom satellite, 964
lightning strike, 964
Lightweight debris, 672
Delta II second stage thrust chamber body, 672
E-glass, 672–673
optical photograph of as-received debris, 672, 672f
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), 384
Lincoln Experimental Satellites (LES), 268–272
Linear shaped charge (LSC), 332–333
Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment (LCVG), 825–826
Liquid effluents, 61
Liquid hypergols, 187–188, 204
Liquid propellants, 200
boosters, 143
fireballs, 204, 287–288, 289f
rocket motors, 102
safety considerations, 71
systems, 71
vehicles, 302
Liquid venting, 556
LM, See Lunar Module
Load factor limit, 629
LOC, See Loss of Crew
Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), 442–443
Longitude changing, 426
Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), 266
LOS point, See Loss of Signal point
Loss of Crew (LOC), 813–814
Loss of Crew and Vehicle (LOCV), 812–814
Loss of Mission (LOM), 812
Loss of Signal point (LOS point), 683–684
Low Earth Orbit (LEO), 18, 420, 477, 482, 581, 714
constellation management
iridium constellation, 421, 422f
orbital planes, 421
drag in, 484f
evolution, 609–610
analytical model for, 611
DTMBARLIER + CIRA88 model, 613
GAUSS equations, 611–612
object burning up, 610–611
satellite with characteristics, 612–613
shape evolution, 612
solar and geomagnetic activity effect, 613f
terrestrial atmosphere, 610
time of impact, 612
lethal debris objects in, 582t
operational orbit protection, 421
during end-of-life maneuvers, 423
sequence of operations, 423
SPOT satellites operational orbit, 422f
See also Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)
Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG), 260
Lunar Module (LM)Maneuver thresholds, 400f, 469–470
red threshold, 469–470
yellow threshold, 470

M

Manned chaser, 478
Manned mission scenarios, 478
Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG), 260
Mars Exploration Rover (MER), 266–267
Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), 260, 268–272
Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), 266
Mass, 784
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), 68
Maximum Expected Operating Pressure (MEOP), 79, 577–578
Maximum permissible energy (MPE), 802
Maximum Probable Loss (MPL), 714
Mechanical injuries, 125
Meteorology, 829
Micro-meteoroid and orbital debris (MM/OD), 816
Midcourse Space Experiment satellite (MSX satellite), 413
Minimum Equipment List (MEL), 397
Mir Electrodynamic Tether System (METS), 593
Mishap response systems, 25
Mission Action Request, 409–410
Mission and Vehicle Management (MVM), 501
Mission characterization
characteristics, 106
decision making process, 112
event trees, 114
failure categories, 112–114
control failures, 113
guidance system failures, 113
immediate breakup, 112
malfunction turn, 115f
staging/jettison failures, 114
failure modes, 114
Flight Termination System, 111
launch vehicle, 111
sample abort mode event tree, 120f
sample top level RLV event tree, 116f
Mission Control Center (MCC), 371–372, 374
complexity, 375
data security management, 390–391
functions, 373t
goal, 374
ground infrastructure, 381
management control structure, 375
MCC-H role, 380–381
mission failures, 380–381
mission personnel
control centers, 382t
crew, 381
engineering support, 383–384
FCT, 383
ground support, 384–385
interfaces, 383f
mission management, 381
operations control rooms
back room controllers, 388
CAPCOM, 387
FCT, 387
for ISS, 387–388
ISS partner’s control rooms, 386f
layout, 385, 386f
real-time, 385, 385f
redundancy and fault tolerant, 388
structure from flight director, 385, 387f
safety consideration, 379
spaceflight mission project, 379
design concept phase, 380
flight controllers, 380f
mission operations, 379
with spaceflight vehicle, 377–379
See also Payload Operations Control Center (POCC)
Mission Control Center Houston (MCC-H), 375
flight controllers in, 380f
Mission Control Center–Moscow (MCC-M), 375
Mission Flight Control Officers (MFCOs), 359
Mission personnel
control centers, 382t
crew, 381
engineering support, 383–384
FCT, 383
ground support, 384–385
interfaces, 383f
mission management, 381
Mitigation, 7–8
Mixed oxides of nitrogen (MON), 193
Mobile servicing system (MSS), 820
Mobile transporter (MT), 820
TUS risk
mitigating risk factors, 821
from MM-OD impacts, 821
MSS, 820
program concerns, 821
translation operations, 822
Mode-locked pulse laser, 796–797
Modified equinoctial element (MEE), 455–456
Modular Auxiliary Data System (MADS), 712
Molniya orbit, 899
Moment of inertia (MoI), 653
Monomethyl hydrazine (MMH), 193, 332
Monopropellant thrusters, 555–556
Monte Carlo methods, 165
Monte-Carlo analysis, 459
along-track direction, 459–460
angular velocity calculation, 459
collision-detection methods, 460
limitations, 461
Lyapunov unstable, 459
normal or uniform distribution, 460
probability propagation, 460–461
solution space generation, 460f
Moon Treaty, 349
Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG), 260, 268–272
Multi-Purpose Crewed Vehicle (MPCV), 812
Multiplexer/demultiplexer (MDM), 395

N

N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), 560
NASA Advisory Council (NAC), 260
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 50–51, 259–260, 398, 806
demand, 263t
ESA Hubble Space Telescope, 376f
explosion model, 662
JSC, 176
NAC, 260
questions, 259–260
RPSs, 260
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 352, 987–988
compliance process, 354f
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), 3
Natural Zones of Interest for Ecology, Flora and Fauna (ZNIEFF), 56
Navigation errors effects, 493
on trajectory evolution
evolution, 496
impulsive transfer, 493
measurements, 493, 496
navigation errors, 493
on parallel orbit, 494f
propagation, 493
target orbit, 494f
velocity error, 495f
Near field effects, 219
Nitric oxide (NO), 193
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 193, 213
Nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4), 554–555
Non-buoyant sources, toxic emissions, 192
atmospheric dispersion models, 197
atmospheric stability classes, 195
cloud cover and ceiling factors, 194
downwind concentration analysis, 193
Gaussian dispersion models, 195
Gaussian modeling assumption, 195
growth coefficients, 195
heat transfer and evaporation, 194
hypergolic
fuels, 193
oxidizers, 193
hypergols, 192–193
IRFNA, 193
pool evaporation rates, 193–194
standard Gaussian models, 197
theoretical evaporation model, 195
toxic dispersion model, 194–195
turbulence
intensity, 195–196
measurement system, 196
Non-nominal trajectories, 482
Non-toxic propellants, 188, 188t
Normal crossrange probability distribution, 164f
Normal launch source, 202
NOTAM, See Notice to Airmen
Notice of Availability (NOA), 353–354
Notice of intent (NOI), 353–354
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM), 92, 784–785
Notices to Mariners (NOTMARs), 88, 92
NOTMARs, See Notices to Mariners
..................Content has been hidden....................

You can't read the all page of ebook, please click here login for view all page.
Reset