136 • Creative, Ecient, and Eective Project Management
in the circles and on the connections. e important point is to let
the concepts and their relationships ow.
4. Avoid the biggest danger with mind mapping: ow of control.
inking in terms of ow of control, such as a programming ow
chart, will restrict free thinking, which will be reected in the quality
and quantity of concepts and their relationships.
5. Whether doing mind mapping as an individual or group, remember
to encourage further concepts using piggybacking or leapfrogging
on other concepts. is action will help increase the number of con-
cepts and relationships, which in turn make the idea more thorough
and tangible.
16
Some ways to use mind mapping on a project include:
• Analyzing issues recorded in an issues log
• Collecting ideas and displaying their relationship to solve a schedul-
ing problem
• Identifying all the elements of a work breakdown structure and their
relationships to each other
• Identifying and documenting ideas for specic management plans
before draing the plans
Imagineering
Also known as visualization, imagineering is using one’s imagination to
describe an ideal state for an idea. is ideal state consists of components
and their relationships. People can generate dierent versions or models
of this ideal state.
Keep in mind the following when using imagineering:
1. It is one thing to mentally visualize the idea; it is another to write it
down. Putting it on paper solidies the vision and allows for better
communication about it. In other words, it becomes tangible.
2. Free the mind, if possible, of all preconceptions, assumptions, and so
on that inhibit the ability to imagine something very creative. Doing
so is not easy because it requires stepping outside of oneself, so to
speak, and seeing the vision in a way that would never seem pos-
sible. Repeat: writing it on paper helps one see if the assumptions and
preconceptions have surfaced.
Common Creativity Tools and Techniques • 137
3. Try to use imagineering to generate dierent versions of an idea.
Perhaps, for example, change a component’s size or purpose or alter
some of the relationships and see the eects.
4. As a creative idea is placed into the real world, compare the actual
results with the anticipated ones using imagineering. Such action
may reveal that an idea was erroneous to some degree or completely
out of touch with reality. Modications may then be necessary.
5. Remember that imagineering works with other techniques. ese
techniques include modeling, such as prototyping.
17
e other tech-
niques enable using the imagination and churning the vision into
something tangible.
Some ways to use imagineering on a project include:
• Capturing the to-be state of a process
• Formulating an ideal response strategy to a high-probability and
high-impact risk, should it occur
• Picturing what a deliverable should ideally look like
• Visualizing the outcome of an executive-level status presentation
Lateral Thinking
Edward de Bono is the creator of this approach. It is predicated on the
notion that people normally use patterned thinking, which is linear and
analytical in orientation. In contrast, lateral thinking encourages the
breaking of patterns through synthesis (e.g., combining and recombining
to determine dierent alternatives).
Keep the following in mind when employing lateral thinking:
1. Look for evidence of patterned thinking, such as assumptions treated
as facts and adherence to a paradigm or model already in use. Such
evidence reveals a person’s preferences on how he or she interprets
and responds in the real world.
2. Identify any shortcomings. ese are opportunities to generate
creative solutions. ey are usually gaps in patterned thinking.
3. Look at a problem from dierent angles or perspectives. Do the same
with alternatives.
4. Try to break, or step outside, the boundaries of the prevailing mind-
set that people oen follow even without really thinking about it.
138 • Creative, Ecient, and Eective Project Management
Provoke the paradigm by issuing mental challenges (e.g., provocative
questions) to its most sacred beliefs, assumptions, and so on.
5. Recognize that the world is mostly shades of gray, not black and
white. Gray thinking recognizes that there is no one right answer but
multiple ones. e cookie-cutter approach only restricts thinking
and, consequently, limits options.
6. Lateral thinking serves as an excellent approach to use with dierent
techniques. For example, lateral thinking can work well with imagi-
neering and modeling.
18
Some ways to use lateral thinking on a project include taking a cross-
functional or interdisciplinary perspective to:
• Improve a process described in a management plan
• Overcome an obstacle impacting cost and schedule performance
• Respond to a risk
Workflow Analysis
is technique entails reviewing a process to determine key elements of
information and primary controls regulating its behavior. is analysis
helps ascertain opportunities to generate creative solutions that opti-
mize the eectiveness and eciency of a process. Workow analysis is
essentially, then, a tool to develop creative ideas to enhance process
performance.
Keep in mind the following when performing workow analysis:
1. Document the as-is process. is documentation provides a means
to identify opportunities for improvement, such as in the area of
time constraints, rules, roles, responsibilities, and cycle time.
2. Use symbols that everyone understands and keep the number to
a minimum. A complicated diagram oen reects a lack of true
understanding of fundamental issues or represents an opportunity
for creative thinking to improve a process. Keep it simple, unless the
purpose is to demonstrate that reducing complexity is necessary.
3. Aer documenting the as-is and determining opportunities for
creative thinking, develop the to-be process. Any gaps will reect
dierences, and just as importantly the benets, of a new process
over the old.
19
Common Creativity Tools and Techniques • 139
Some ways to use workow analysis on a project include determining:
• At what points in a project to hire consultants
• Process bottlenecks
• e source of defects
• Under what circumstances senior management should become
involved in approving a change
Matrices
ese techniques help capture relationships among dierent variables.
ese relationships can be between two or more variables. A matrix
helps capture considerable data in a compact table and records the dif-
ferent relationships. From a creativity perspective, a matrix helps capture
creative solutions under varying circumstances, such as using a design
experiment to show that certain conditions in a test will have expected
results.
Keep the following in mind when using a matrix:
1. Identify the variables that have a causal or correlative relationship.
Each relationship should have a result with some degree of con-
dence of occurring.
2. Keep the contents of the matrix current. Data in the matrix is
oen time dependent and circumstances change. Dated con-
tents lessen the value of a matrix during experimentation with
the relationships of dierent variables. In fact, the matrix may
have to be revised as tests reveal results that are dierent than
expected.
3. Remember that a matrix represents a known nite universe. It may
not capture all the results of a bi- or multivariable relationship.
20
Some ways to use matrices on a project include:
• Building a communications plan
• Building a responsibility assignment chart
• Comparing expected and actual cost performance results
• Implementing contingency plans under specic circumstances
• Performing a qualitative risk assessment
• Preparing a requirements traceability matrix
140 • Creative, Ecient, and Eective Project Management
Reengineering
is is an approach that seeks to come up with a more ecient and eec-
tive process than currently exists. It involves discarding an old process
and replacing it with a new one. In theory, it enables breakthrough results
in performance.
Keep in mind the following when reengineering:
1. Document the as-is process. en, collect as much data and infor-
mation as necessary about the existing process. is data and
information will serve as a baseline to compare how the new pro-
cess enhances eciency and eectiveness. Also, look for non-value-
added areas in an existing process, such as delays, which may reveal
opportunities to improve performance.
2. Document the to-be process. en compare the as-is and to-be
processes to ensure actual capture of the improvements as a result
of the latter. e to-be processes must demonstrate improvements
that replace the status quo of doing business. Keep in mind that
signicant changes in improvement to warrant the new to-be pro-
cess will arise. Here is where creativity applies. Using other tools
and techniques enables coming up with highly creative, innovative
solutions.
3. Conduct the implementation of the to-be process. Expect resistance
from some individuals and organizations threatened by the loss of
the as-is process. ey have probably invested considerable time
and eort into building and sustaining the as-is process, which, if
it went away, would also threaten them. Oen individuals and orga-
nizations may exhibit cautionary acceptance, contingent upon the
benets gained by the to-be process.
4. During the implementation of the to-be process, expect to make
revisions along the way. Reality will necessitate revisions to the new
process as the need to adapt arises. ese revisions will be likely to
lessen the advantages of the to-be process. Be cognizant of these
impacts to address concerns by people who subscribe to the as-is
process.
Technically, reengineering is not a creativity technique. However, it pro-
vides the opportunity to use several techniques to identify and implement
creative ideas that can dramatically change the status quo.
21
Some ways to
use reengineering on a project include discarding inecient or ineective:
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