Chapter 5

The Distinctive Features of Iranian Shia

Shia and Sunni Muslims

Historically, religion has a special place in the Iranian society. Ancient Iran was the birthplace of Zoroastrianism, which is believed to have influenced Judaism, Christianity, and by extension, Islam. Currently, around 90 percent of the Iranians are Shia Muslims, but there are many other religious groups in the country including Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Baha’is. The Constitution of Iran recognizes Shia Islam as the official religion of the country. Sunni Muslims represent only about 6 to 8 percent of the Iranian population.¹ A majority of Kurds, Baluchis, and Turkmens, and a minority of Arab ethnicities are Sunnis. In addition to Iran, Shia Muslims live in other countries such as Azerbaijan, Iraq, Lebanon, Yemen, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and parts of the central and southern Asia. Saudi Arabia has a substantial Shia minority estimated at 10 percent of its population. Altogether, it is estimated that Shia Islam is practiced among approximately 10 to 15 percent of the world’s Muslim population.² While the majority of Muslims in the world are Sunnis, the Iranian Muslims are largely Shia. In fact, Shia confession is an important component of the Iranian national identity. After the conquest of Muslim Arabs in the seventh century, most of the Iranians gave up Zoroastrianism and converted to Islam. Despite their natural affinity with Shia, for many centuries the inhabitants of Iran, like other Muslim countries, officially professed the Sunni form of the Islamic faith and Sunni Muslims constituted majority of the Iranian population.³ Between 1501 and 1735 AD, Iran came under the reign of Safavid dynasty that passionately united Iran under Twelver Shia faith. Henceforth, the national identity of Iran has been interwoven with Shia Islam and Iran has been distinguished from the neighboring Muslim countries.⁴ Under the Safavid kings, the Shia shrines in Iran and Iraq were reconstructed and many Iranian Shia clerics settled in Iraq’s holy cities such as Najaf and Karbala. Similarly the relations between Iran and other Shia countries such as Lebanon grew stronger as many Lebanese Shia scholars moved to Iran and developed the basis of Iran’s Shia clerical establishment.⁵

Regardless of their historical and political differences, all Muslims—both Sunni and Shia—share similar principles as they believe that the Prophet Mohammad was the messenger of God (Allah) and the Koran contains the words of God revealed to the prophet some 1,400 years ago. All Muslims abide by the rules of Islam as stated in the Koran. Islam as a religion hinges upon five pillars: (1) Shahadat—the belief that “There is no God but Allah, and Mohammad is His Prophet;” (2) five obligatory prayers in a day; (3) giving alms to the poor; (4) fasting during the month of Ramadan; and (5) making a pilgrimage to Mecca once during a lifetime, if one can afford it.⁶ In theory, Islamic faith has the mission to bring salvation, liberation, and justice to the world. In that sense, Islam is a religion from God and oriented toward humanity.⁷ It involves both worldly and godly teachings. For Muslims, Islam is not a manmade institution; the Koran contains the words of God, and its commands are literally correct and practical even in modern times. More importantly, Islam is considered an all-encompassing creed governing every aspect of life: public, private, political, and economic. These features make Islam rather an intolerant and inflexible religion that imposes its traditional commandments on the contemporary social life and resists reform and modernization. The Islamic jurisprudence is based mainly on the Koran and Prophet Mohammad’s teachings and conducts.

Depending on their reactions to the modern world, Muslims can be divided into two main camps: the reformists and the fundamentalists.⁸ The reformists emphasize the importance of religious teachings, but try to reinterpret the Islamic teachings by adapting them to socioeconomic and technological circumstances.⁹ They underline that Muslims could improve their lives by reconciling Islam and rationality. For instance, the Iranian reformists such as Assad-Abadi and Ali Shariati did not dislike the Western ideas; rather they tried to incorporate them into the Islamic thought to build a beneficial and practical formula for Muslim societies. In contrast, the Islamic fundamentalists are known by their enthusiastic opposition to secularization and social modernization.¹⁰ They underline that Islam has unalterable teachings for all aspects of personal and social life that should be applied in political, cultural, and economic matters. Most importantly, the fundamentalists stick to a literal understanding of the Koran and believe that Islamic teachings and traditions should be precisely executed regardless of the modern time and circumstances.

The Shia-Sunni Divide

Shias and Sunnis share similar theological and legal tenets. The major differences between the two sects reside in their disagreements over the succession to the Prophet Mohammad and the leadership in the Muslim community.¹¹ When the Prophet Mohammad died in 622 AD, there was disagreement among his followers on selection of his successor. Sunni Muslims recognize Mohammad’s father-in-law, Abu Bakr as the leader of the Islamic community. By contrast, the Shias believe that the Prophet had appointed his cousin and son-in-law Imam Ali as his successor because of his superior qualities and devotion. In particular, the Twelver Shia Muslims believe that the real leadership of the Muslim community passed from the Prophet Mohammad to Imam Ali and then to 11 of his direct descendants. Shia Muslims denounce the persecution and martyrdom of the rightful Imams by the reigning Caliphs who, in their view, deprived them of their rights to assume the prescribed religious leadership. In contrast, Sunnis reject this idea and believe in another course of leadership for the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims recognize the first four Caliphs including Imam Ali as faithful followers of the Prophet Mohammad, but do not accept the Shia Imams as the right leaders of the Muslim community. In short, while the Sunnis regard the previous caliphs as legitimate leaders of the Muslim community, the Shias view them as illegitimate rulers and believe in a line of Imams descended from the Prophet.¹² In addition to these historical differences, Shia Muslims attach importance to Ali, not only as the First Imam (Caliph), but also as a devoted Muslim who was a close associate of the Prophet Mohammad. The Shias maintain that Imam Ali had outstanding qualities as he was the first one who converted to Islam and subsequently became Prophet’s closest companion. For that reason, they glorify Imam Ali and consider him as the friend of God. In their view, he and his descendants inherited some of the Prophet’s supreme qualities and can be seen as the best interpreters of Islamic teachings and tradition. Furthermore, the Twelver Shias believe that the Twelfth Imam who is in occultation will return and will eventually establish justice across the world. Shia Islam has a few sects. After the Twelver Shia, the Ismailis are the second largest Shia sect whose followers recognize only seven Imams. Ismailis are found mainly in parts of India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.¹³ Similarly, the Zaydis represent another Shia sect whose adherents are found mainly in Yemen. Other Shia sects such as the Alawites and Druzes are found in parts of Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey.¹⁴ Similarly, the Sunni Islam has many branches and subdivisions; among them the four schools of Hanafi, Shafii, Maliki, and Hanbali are notably important. In the past decades, the Hanbali School has been transforming to radical movements such as Wahhabism and Salafism in Saudi Arabia.¹⁵ Figure 5.1 depicts the major branches of Islam and their relative sizes.

Figure 5.1 The main branches of islam and their relative weights

Source : “The Sunni-Shia Divide.”¹⁸

Due to their minority status, the Shia communities in other countries such as Afghanistan, Bahrain, Pakistan, and Lebanon have historically sought spiritual and material support from Iran.¹⁶ Despite their historical and political differences, there were no considerable conflicts between Sunni and Shia Muslims in the last three centuries. Indeed, the relations between Shia Iran and its Sunni rival, the Ottoman Empire and other Arab countries and communities were quite peaceful during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries.¹⁷ Sunni and Shia Muslims have lived peacefully together for centuries and commerce, socialization, religious congregation, and intermarriage between the adherents of two sects have been quite common. In the recent decades, with the rise of Wahhabi Islam in Saudi Arabia, Shias have been subjected to harassment, persecution, and massacres in many countries including Bahrain, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Saudi Arabia. For example, the Taliban massacred 8000 Shia Hazaras in 1998, and more recently, Sunni extremist groups have systematically targeted and slaughtered Shias in Iraq, Pakistan, and Bahrain. The violence against Shias has contributed to the empowerment of Sunni terrorist groups like Taliban, al-Qaeda, and the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). Facing the anti-Shia doctrine of Wahhabism in some Arab countries, Iran has remained conciliatory and instead has underlined 71 Sunni–Shia relations.¹⁹ One may suggest that in addition to socioeconomic and demographic changes in the Middle East, the Iranian Islamic Revolution, and the Wahhabis’ interpretation of Islam in Saudi Arabia have contributed to increasing tensions between Shia and Sunni Muslims over the course of the past decades.²⁰ After the Iranian Islamic revolution, Saudi Arabia has accelerated the promulgation of Wahhabism as a puritanical and antagonist version of Sunni Islam. In the absence of effective measures to curb radical Islam (both Shia and Sunni faiths), the sectarian conflicts between Shia and Sunni communities may lead to large scale and destructive political and military conflicts in the greater Middle East.

The Shia Salient Features

Regardless of their disagreement over the succession to Prophet Mohammad and the leadership in the Muslim community, there is very little theological and legal difference between the two sects.²¹ Nevertheless, certain matters and principles receive more attention in Shia Islam and have different meanings and implications. For instance, guidance and emulation, the Hidden Imam, mourning rituals, and the JURIST GUARDIANSHIP are peculiar to Shia and are not seen in Sunni Islam.

Guidance and Emulation

Shias believe that the Muslims always need guidance in religious matters. This guidance is offered first by the 12 Imams or dependents of the prophet Mohammad, and afterwards by the qualified clerics (Faghih) who assume the responsibility of religious guidance. Those high ranking and qualified Shia clerics who have the authority of religious guidance are called marja (literally the reference for religious matters). There is no formal procedure for being accepted as a marja, but the prominent Shia clerics from religious schools in holy cities such as Najaf, Karbala, Mashhad, and Qom may reach this rank. The essential qualifications of a marja include an extensive knowledge of jurisprudence proven by many years of teaching and scholarship along with exceptional piousness and spirituality.²² The qualified Shia clerics may be promoted to the rank of marja upon the recommendation of their fellow clerics and acceptance of their devoted followers.²³ The faithful Shia may choose their preferred religious guides (marja) and follow their instructions throughout their lives. Furthermore, the devoted followers pay their religious taxes to their chosen marjas who supposedly take care of financing Islamic schools and charity organizations. Therefore, the high ranking and qualified Shia clerics (marja) exert a significant degree of influence over their followers.

Clerical Organization and Interpretation of Religious Teachings

In Shia Islam, the body of the clerical institution is very hierarchical and well-structured moving from modest preachers to high ranking ayatollahs and grand ayatollahs with significant influence over their followers. In other words, Shia religious hierarchy seems similar in structure and religious power to that of the Catholic Church. Conversely, in Sunni Islam, the clerical organization is less centralized, and the clergy exert less power and influence over their followers. Furthermore, while the sources of religious interpretation are similar among Shia and Sunni believers, the Shia legal interpretation is more dynamic as it permits some degree of individual reasoning by high ranking clerics.²⁴ Thus, a characteristic of Shia Islam is the constant discussion and reinterpretation of its doctrine by high ranking clerics.

Martyrdom

While the idea of martyrdom is found in all Islamic factions, it is in Shia Islam that it receives a good deal of attention. The Shias believe that all their 11 Imams have been martyred to defend their faith. Every year, they commemorate Imam Hossein, the Ali’s younger son who was martyred near Karbala in Iraq in 680 AD. His death symbolizes martyrdom for the sake of God, righteousness, and Islam. The martyrs believe that fighting and dying for the holy cause of virtue is part of their religious obligations.²⁵ For many centuries martyrdom was a dormant idea reserved for prophets, Imams, and saints, but the Islamic Revolution and the war with Iraq revived it and brought the martyrdom idea to Iranians’ daily lives.²⁶ During the war with Iraq (1980–1988), millions of young volunteers who called themselves Basiji poured to the war zones to defend their homeland, their Islamic Revolution, and their faith. Thanks to the unimaginable heroism of these young volunteers, the Islamic Republic neutralized the internal and external threats and emerged as a strong regional power.

Jihad

The concept of Jihad occupies an important place in both Shia and Sunni Islam. The word Jihad literally means to strive.²⁷ According to Islamic-Shia teachings, Jihad may have two forms; the first form is fighting one’s own evil inclinations and the second one consists of fighting unfaithful aggressors.²⁸ Therefore, a faithful Muslim should make efforts to defend the faith and Muslim community against internal and external attacks. For the obvious reasons, the second form of Jihad is what is well known in the West. The Shia idea of Jihad is associated with historical suffering and grievances of the Shia Imams, especially the martyrdom of Imam Hossain.²⁹ It is important to emphasize that in Shia Islam the Jihad requires the return of the Last Imam who is in occultation. Therefore, Shia Muslims should not resort to Jihad; rather they should be patient and wait for the return of their promised Imam.

Commemoration and Mourning Rituals

Shia Muslims are marked by the commemoration of their Imams and mourning rituals. Every year for 10 days (Ashura), they mourn the Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Imam Hussein with many flamboyant rituals including chanting, passion plays, whipping, and chest beating. During these festivals, Shia men and women dressed in black march through the streets, slap their chests, and chant in the memory of martyrs and their sufferings. Faithful men may remember the suffering of Imam Hussein by flagellating themselves with chains, and some mourners may cut their foreheads until blood streams from their skin.³⁰ In Iran, many passion plays and theatrical performances (tazieh) take place on the streets during Ashura to highlight the spirit of sacrifice, heroism, and resistance of Imam Hussein. Similar commemoration and passion plays take place in Iraq, Bahrain, and India.

Ceremonial and Practical Differences

There are minor practical and ceremonial differences between Shia and Sunni Muslims. Shias, like Sunnis, emphasize: “There is no god but Allah, Mohammad is the messenger of God,” but in their call for prayers, they add that “Ali is the friend of Allah.” Likewise, Shias perform prayer a little bit different from Sunnis and place the forehead onto a piece of hardened clay and not directly onto the prayer mat when prostrating. In addition, they tend to combine prayers and generally pray three times each day instead of five. Glorification of the Prophet Mohammad and pilgrimage to his shrines is another distinctive feature of Shia Islam.³¹ There are other minor differences in tradition and historical narratives between the two sects. For example, Shia Islam permits fixed-term or temporary marriage, which was permitted at the time of the Prophet but is currently forbidden by the Sunnis

The Hidden Imam and Apocalyptic View

As mentioned earlier, the Twelver Shias believe that the Twelfth Imam or Mahdi is in occultation and will eventually return to establish the rule of justice. They consider that Prophet Mohammad was the last messenger of God, but Imam Mahdi will come to correct the religion’s deviations. In other words, Shias consider the rule of Imam as an extension of ­Mohammad’s prophecy and believe that the Muslim community should be provided God’s guidance via an Imam. They expect the return of Imam Mahdi as a world reformer who will revive the authentic Islamic teachings.³² In accordance with this principle, the Shia traditional worldview is very pacifist and maintains that any effort in founding a legitimate religious government before the return of the Hidden Imam is heretical. In other words, due to the occultation of the Twelfth Imam, Shia tradition suggests that no expansionist Jihad can be fought.³³ Apparently, this Shia’s view was altered by Ayatollah Khomeini and his idea of the Jurist Guardianship.

Velayat Faghih or the Jurist Guardianship

The idea of Velayat Faghih or the Jurist Guardianship did not exist in the Shia tradition and was developed by Ayatollah Khomeini during the 1970s. Velayat Faghih can be considered as an extension of the leadership of the Muslim community. Accordingly, Ayatollah Khomeini suggested that in the absence of the Hidden Imam, the Shia’s jurists (Faghih) should assume the responsibility of establishing an Islamic government by providing the social and political leadership that the Prophet and the Imams had offered.³⁴ The Jurist Guardianship entails that the Shia clergymen, by virtue of their religious knowledge, are the best qualified to rule the ­society of believers.³⁵ It is important to note that not all Shia Muslims or clerics accept this idea. Some Shia Muslims believe that clerics should provide guidance for the faithful to interpret Islamic law but should remain outside the realm of politics.³⁶ For example, Ayatollah Shariatmadari (1904–1985), a prominent Shia cleric, regarded the Jurist Guardianship to be a deviation from the true Shia Islam. The idea of Velayat Faghih was introduced in the postrevolutionary constitution and provided a conceptual framework for the revolutionaries to build the Islamic Republic of Iran under the rule of Ayatollah Khomeini as the first Supreme Leader. The Iranian Constitution emphasizes the clerics’ rights to assume the political authority and to enforce the Islamic law in the country.³⁷

The Shia Religious Organization: Clerics, Mosques, Religious Schools, and Shrines

The Iranian Shia religious organization consists of a large number of clerics who are involved in a complex network of mosques, religious schools, meeting-halls, and shrines across the country.³⁸

The Iranian Shia clerics include nearly 300,000 members ranging from low-ranking preachers and religious students to high-ranking clerics and grand ayatollahs.³⁹ As mentioned earlier, the Shia Muslims believe that after their holy Imams, religious jurists have the exclusive right to understand and interpret religious knowledge to the Muslim community.⁴⁰ Therefore, they have a much more elaborate and powerful religious hierarchy than the Sunnis. Laymen and junior clerics are supposed to choose and follow a high-ranking cleric (marja or mojtahed) who masters the religious jurisprudence and theology. Generally, to become a mojtahed, a clergyman should spend many years to complete religious studies and receive an authorization from other experienced authorities. The prominent clerics who become grand ayatollahs may attract millions of followers and enjoy an unquestionable financial and moral support. Ayatollah Khomeini was a prime example of a grand ayatollah who skillfully capitalized on his followers’ support to ignite the political and social unrest in the 1970s. Due to the length of such studies, most religious students cannot complete the full curriculum to attain marja or mojtahed distinction. In such cases, the students who have not completed the advanced levels make a more humble religious career by serving as low ranking preachers, prayer leaders, teachers, and mosque administrators. Historically, the Shia clerics have been independent from the state and for that reason they have preserved their financial and organizational freedom. However, this independence has been waning after the Islamic revolution, as most of the clerics were employed by government institutions as administrators, counselors, advisors, auditors, judges, university professors, radio and television speakers, representatives, members of parliaments, and political officials.⁴¹ In addition to employment, many of the high ranking clerics have access to public or private funding in the form of endowments, religious taxes, and donations. In contrast to the Western-style educated intellectuals, the clerics are available to the ordinary population, speak their language, and understand their preoccupations. They are skillful public speakers and master effective communication tactics to touch on the interests of the audience. In small towns, the clerics are considered as trustworthy and respectable and are financially and logistically supported by the traditional bazar merchants. In particular, the clerics with black turbans who are allegedly descended from the prophet Mohammad, receive a good deal of respect and financial support.

Mosque is a place for congregational prayers. It is estimated that there are about 6,000 mosques in Iranian towns.⁴² The mosques are equipped with a special chair used by religious preachers or mullahs. Husainiyeh is another Shia congregation place serving as a site for religious ceremonies, especially during the anniversary of Imam Hussain’s martyrdom. The mosques’ preachers talk mainly about religious topics, but thanks to their close ties with the community, they touch on many social, economic, and political issues. In addition to mosques and meeting halls, Shia Islam has shrines as the holiest sites. Shrines are generally mausoleums of the venerated Imams or their relatives. The most important Shia shrines are located in Iraq; however, there are more than 1,000 small and large shrines across Iran.⁴³ The most important shrines in Iran are those of Imam Reza in Mashhad and Hazrat Masoomeh in Qom. These shrines consist of many peripheral institutions such as mosques, religious seminaries, museums, hospitals, and libraries. Many shrines are open 24 hours each day and receive a large number of pilgrims from all over the country. In almost all Iranian towns, there are many smaller shrines called imamzadeh that honor Imams’ offsprings and those quasi-saints who are known for their faithfulness and pious lives. The movement of pilgrims creates a coherent religious network across the country and serves as a medium of cultural and social exchange among different ethnic groups. It should be noted that the pilgrimage to Imams’ shrines is a Shia custom and is not seen in Sunni Islam.