Many of the ideas underlying the contemporary motivation theories are complementary, and you’ll understand better how to motivate people if you see how the theories fit together.39 Exhibit 12–9 presents a model that integrates much of what we know about motivation. Its basic foundation is the expectancy model. Let’s work through the model, starting on the left.

Exhibit 12–9

Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation

The individual effort box has an arrow leading into it. This arrow flows from the individual’s goals. Consistent with goal-setting theory, this goals-effort link is meant to illustrate that goals direct behavior.

• Expectancy theory predicts that an employee will exert a high level of effort if he or she perceives a strong relationship between effort and performance, performance and rewards, and rewards and satisfaction of personal goals. Each of these relationships is, in turn, influenced by certain factors. You can see from the model that the level of individual performance is determined not only by the level of individual effort, but also by the individual’s ability to perform and by whether the organization has a fair and objective performance evaluation system. The performance-reward relationship will be strong if the individual perceives that it is performance (rather than seniority, personal favorites, or some other criterion) that is rewarded. The final link in expectancy theory is the rewards-goal relationship.

• The traditional need theories come into play at this point. Motivation would be high to the degree that the rewards an individual received for his or her high performance satisfied the dominant needs consistent with his or her individual goals.

A closer look at the model also shows that it considers other theories.

• Achievement-need is seen, in that the high achiever isn’t motivated by the organization’s assessment of his or her performance or organizational rewards, hence the jump from effort to individual goals for those with a high nAch. Remember that high achievers are internally driven as long as the jobs they’re doing provide them with personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks. They’re not concerned with the effort-performance, performance-reward, or rewards-goals linkages.

• Reinforcement theory is seen in the model by recognizing that the organization’s rewards reinforce the individual’s performance. If managers have designed a reward system that is seen by employees as “paying off” for good performance, the rewards will reinforce and encourage continued good performance.

• Rewards also play a key part in equity theory. Individuals will compare the rewards (outcomes) they have received from the inputs or efforts they made with the inputs-outcomes ratio of relevant others. If inequities exist, the effort expended may be influenced.

• Finally, the JCM is seen in this integrative model. Task characteristics (job design) influence job motivation at two places. First, jobs that are designed around the five job dimensions are likely to lead to higher actual job performance because the individual’s motivation will be stimulated by the job itself—that is, they will increase the linkage between effort and performance. Second, jobs that are designed around the five job dimensions also increase an employee’s control over key elements in his or her work. Therefore, jobs that offer autonomy, feedback, and similar task characteristics help to satisfy the individual goals of employees who desire greater control over their work.