Endnotes

  1. 1. L. I. Albert, “The Wall Street Journal Reorganizes Newsroom, Creates Senior Roles,” Wall Street Journal online, July 13, 2017.

  2. 2. R. A. Smith, “The Most Creative New Job in Fashion,” Wall Street Journal, March 14, 2018, pp. A11+.

  3. 3. B. Fenwick, “Oklahoma Factory Turns Out US Bombs Used in Iraq,” Planet Ark www.planetark.com, November 4, 2003; A. Meyer, “Peeking inside the Nation’s Bomb Factory,” KFOR TV, www.kfor.com, February 27, 2003; G. Tuchman, “Inside America’s Bomb Factory,” CNN, cnn.usnews.com, December 5, 2002; and C. Fishman, “Boomtown, U.S.A.,” Fast Company, June 2002, pp. 106–14.

  4. 4. L. Weber, “For Videogame Makers, Hiring Is a Last Resort,” Wall Street Journal, April 11, 2017, pp. A1+.

  5. 5. M. Boyle, “Super Bucks,” Fortune, February 4, 2008, pp. 8–9; and M. Hiestand, “Making a Stamp on Football,” USA Today, January 25, 2005, pp. 1C+.

  6. 6. S. E. Humphrey, J. D. Nahrgang, and F. P. Morgeson, “Integrating Motivational, Social, and Contextual Work Design Features: A Meta-Analytic Summary and Theoretical Expansion of the Work Design Literature,” Journal of Applied Psychology, September 2007, pp. 1332–56.

  7. 7. E. Kelly, “Keys to Effective Virtual Global Teams,” Academy of Management Executive, May 2001, pp. 132–33; and D. Ancona, H. Bresman, and K. Kaeufer, “The Comparative Advantage of X-Team,” MIT Sloan Management Review, Spring 2002, pp. 33–39.

  8. 8. R. S. Benchley, “Following Orders,” Chief Executive, March 2002, p. 6.

  9. 9. R. Preston, “Inside Out,” Management Today, September 2001, p. 37; and R. D. Clarke, “Over Their Heads,” Black Enterprise, December 2000, p. 79.

  10. 10. See J. R. P. French and B. Raven, “The Bases of Social Power,” in D. Cartwright and A. F. Zander (eds.), Group Dynamics: Research and Theory (New York: Harper & Row, 1960), pp. 607–23.

  11. 11. L. Urwick, The Elements of Administration (New York: Harper & Row, 1944), pp. 52–53. See also, J. H. Gittel, “Supervisory Span, Relational Coordination, and Flight Departure Performance: A Reassessment of Post-Bureaucracy Theory,” Organizational Science, July–August 2001, pp. 468–83.

  12. 12. S. Harrison, “Is There a Right Span of Control? Simon Harrison Assesses the Relevance of the Concept of Span of Control to Modern Businesses,” Business Review, February 2004, pp. 10–13.

  13. 13. P. C. Light, “From Pentagon to Pyramids: Whacking at Bloat,” Government Executive, July 2001, p. 100.

  14. 14. See, for instance, D. Van Fleet, “Span of Management Research and Issues,” Academy of Management Journal, September 1983, pp. 546–52; and S. H. Cady and P. M. Fandt, “Managing Impressions with Information: A Field Study of Organizational Realities,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, June 2001, pp. 180–204.

  15. 15. Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management, trans. C. Storrs (London: Pitman Publishing, 1949), pp. 19–42.

  16. 16. J. Zabojnik, “Centralized and Decentralized Decision Making in Organizations,” Journal of Labor Economics, January 2002, pp. 1–22.

  17. 17. See P. Kenis and D. Knoke, “How Organizational Field Networks Shape Interorganizational Tie-Formation Rates,” Academy of Management Review, April 2002, pp. 275–93.

  18. 18. T. Burns and G. M. Stalker, The Management of Innovation (London: Tavistock, 1961).

  19. 19. D. Dougherty, “Re-imagining the Differentiation and Integration of Work for Sustained Product Innovation,” Organization Science, September–October 2001, pp. 612–31.

  20. 20. A. D. Chandler Jr., Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1962).

  21. 21. See, for instance, L. L. Bryan and C. I. Joyce, “Better Strategy through Organizational Design,” McKinsey Quarterly no. 2 (2007), pp. 21–29; D. Jennings and S. Seaman, “High and Low Levels of Organizational Adaptation: An Empirical Analysis of Strategy, Structure, and Performance,” Strategic Management Journal, July 1994, pp. 459–75; D. C. Galunic and K. M. Eisenhardt, “Renewing the Strategy-Structure-Performance Paradigm,” in B. M. Staw and L. L. Cummings (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 16 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1994), pp. 215–55; R. Parthasarthy and S. P. Sethi, “Relating Strategy and Structure to Flexible Automation: A Test of Fit and Performance Implications,” Strategic Management Journal 14, no. 6 (1993), pp. 529–49; H. A. Simon, “Strategy and Organizational Evolution,” Strategic Management Journal, January 1993, pp. 131–42; H. L. Boschken, “Strategy and Structure: Re-conceiving the Relationship,” Journal of Management, March 1990, pp. 135–50; D. Miller, “The Structural and Environmental Correlates of Business Strategy,” Strategic Management Journal, January–February 1987, pp. 55–76; and R. E. Miles and C. C. Snow, Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978).

  22. 22. See, for instance, P. M. Blau and R. A. Schoenherr, The Structure of Organizations (New York: Basic Books, 1971); D. S. Pugh, “The Aston Program of Research: Retrospect and Prospect,” in A. H. Van de Ven and W. F. Joyce (eds.), Perspectives on Organization Design and Behavior (New York: John Wiley, 1981), pp. 135–66; and R. Z. Gooding and J. A. Wagner III, “A Meta-Analytic Review of the Relationship between Size and Performance: The Productivity and Efficiency of Organizations and Their Subunits,” Administrative Science Quarterly, December 1985, pp. 462–81.

  23. 23. See, for example, H. M. O’Neill, “Restructuring, Reengineering and Rightsizing: Do the Metaphors Make Sense?” Academy of Management Executive 8, no. 4 (1994), pp. 9–30; R. K. Reger, J. V. Mullane, L. T. Gustafson, and S. M. Demarie, “Creating Earthquakes to Change Organizational Mindsets,” Academy of Management Executive 8, no. 4 (1994), pp. 31–41; and J. Tan, “Impact of Ownership Type on Environment–Strategy Linkage and Performance: Evidence from a Transitional Company,” Journal of Management Studies, May 2002, pp. 333–54.

  24. 24. E. W. Morrison, “Doing the Job Well: An Investigation of Pro-Social Rule Breaking,” Journal of Management, February 2006, pp. 5–28.

  25. 25. Ibid.

  26. 26. J. Woodward, Industrial Organization: Theory and Practice (London: Oxford University Press, 1965).

  27. 27. From the Classic Concepts in Today's Workplace box based on J. Woodward, Industrial Organization: Theory and Practice. Also, see, for instance, C. Perrow, “A Framework for the Comparative Analysis of Organizations,” American Sociological Review, April 1967, pp. 194–208; J. D. Thompson, Organizations in Action (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967); J. Hage and M. Aiken, “Routine Technology, Social Structure, and Organizational Goals,” Administrative Science Quarterly, September 1969, pp. 366–77; C. C. Miller, W. H. Glick, Y. D. Wang, and G. Huber, “Understanding Technology-Structure Relationships: Theory Development and Meta-Analytic Theory Testing,” Academy of Management Journal, June 1991, pp. 370–99; D. M. Rousseau and R. A. Cooke, “Technology and Structure: The Concrete, Abstract, and Activity Systems of Organizations,” Journal of Management, Fall–Winter 1984, pp. 345–61; and D. Gerwin, “Relationships between Structure and Technology,” in P.C. Nystrom and W. H. Starbuck (eds.), Handbook of Organizational Design, vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 3–38.

  28. 28. H. Mintzberg, Structure in Fives: Designing Effective Organizations (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1983), p. 157.

  29. 29. D. A. Garvin and L. C. Levesque, “The Multiunit Enterprise,” Harvard Business Review, June 2008, pp. 106–17; and R. J. Williams, J. J. Hoffman, and B. T. Lamont, “The Influence of Top Management Team Characteristics on M-Form Implementation Time,” Journal of Managerial Issues, Winter 1995, pp. 466–80.

  30. 30. See, for example, R. Greenwood and D. Miller, “Tackling Design Anew: Getting Back to the Heart of Organization Theory,” Academy of Management Perspectives, November 2010, pp. 78–88; G. J. Castrogiovanni, “Organization Task Environments: Have They Changed Fundamentally Over Time?” Journal of Management vol. 28, no. 2 (2002), pp. 129–50; D. F. Twomey, “Leadership, Organizational Design, and Competitiveness for the 21st Century,” Global Competitiveness, Annual 2002, pp. S31–S40; M. Hammer, “Processed Change: Michael Hammer Sees Process as ‘the Clark Kent of Business Ideas’—A Concept That Has the Power to Change a Company’s Organizational Design,” Journal of Business Strategy, November–December 2001, pp. 11–15; T. Clancy, “Radical Surgery: A View from the Operating Theater,” Academy of Management Executive, February 1994, pp. 73–78; I. I. Mitroff, R. O. Mason, and C. M. Pearson, “Radical Surgery: What Will Tomorrow’s Organizations Look Like?” Academy of Management Executive, February 1994, pp. 11–21; and R. E. Hoskisson, C. W. L. Hill, and H. Kim, “The Multidivisional Structure: Organizational Fossil or Source of Value?” Journal of Management 19, no. 2 (1993), pp. 269–98.

  31. 31. Q. Hardy, “Google Thinks Small,” Forbes, November 14, 2005, pp. 198–202.

  32. 32. See, for example, D. R. Denison, S. L. Hart, and J. A. Kahn, “From Chimneys to Cross-Functional Teams: Developing and Validating a Diagnostic Model,” Academy of Management Journal, December 1996, pp. 1005–23; D. Ray and H. Bronstein, Teaming Up: Making the Transition to a Self-Directed Team-Based Organization (New York: McGraw Hill, 1995); J. R. Katzenbach and D. K. Smith, The Wisdom of Teams (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1993); J. A. Byrne, “The Horizontal Corporation,” BusinessWeek, December 20, 1993, pp. 76–81; B. Dumaine, “Payoff from the New Management,” Fortune, December 13, 1993, pp. 103–10; and H. Rothman, “The Power of Empowerment,” Nation’s Business, June 1993, pp. 49–52.

  33. 33. C. Garvey, “Steer Teams with the Right Pay,” HR Magazine, May 2002, pp. 70–78.

  34. 34. A. Moore, “Managing the Matrix,” TD, May 2017, p. 16.

  35. 35. P. Kaihla, “Best-Kept Secrets of the World’s Best Companies,” Business 2.0, April 2006, p. 83; C. Taylor, “School of Bright Ideas,” Time Inside Business, April 2005, pp. A8–A12; and B. Nussbaum, “The Power of Design,” BusinessWeek, May 17, 2004, pp. 86–94.

  36. 36. See, for example, G. G. Dess, A. M. A. Rasheed, K. J. McLaughlin, and R. L. Priem, “The New Corporate Architecture,” Academy of Management Executive, August 1995, pp. 7–20.

  37. 37. For additional readings on boundaryless organizations, see S. Rausch and J. Birkinshaw, "Organizational Ambidexterity: Antecedents, Outcomes, and Moderators," Journal of Management, June 2008, pp. 375–409; M. F. R. Kets de Vries, “Leadership Group Coaching in Action: The Zen of Creating High Performance Teams,” Academy of Management Executive, February 2005, pp. 61–76; J. Child and R. G. McGrath, “Organizations Unfettered: Organizational Form in an Information-Intensive Economy,” Academy of Management Journal, December 2001, pp. 1135–48; M. Hammer and S. Stanton, “How Process Enterprises Really Work,” Harvard Business Review, November–December 1999, pp. 108–18; T. Zenger and W. Hesterly, “The Disaggregation of Corporations: Selective Intervention, High-Powered Incentives, and Modular Units,” Organization Science 8 (1997), pp. 209–22; R. Ashkenas, D. Ulrich, T. Jick, and S. Kerr, The Boundaryless Organization: Breaking the Chains of Organizational Structure (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997); R. M. Hodgetts, “A Conversation with Steve Kerr,” Organizational Dynamics, Spring 1996, pp. 68–79; and J. Gebhardt, “The Boundaryless Organization,” Sloan Management Review, Winter 1996, pp. 117–19. For another view of boundaryless organizations, see B. Victor, “The Dark Side of the New Organizational Forms: An Editorial Essay,” Organization Science, November 1994, pp. 479–82.

  38. 38. See, for instance, Y. Shin, “A Person-Environment Fit Model for Virtual Organizations,” Journal of Management, December 2004, pp. 725–43; D. Lyons, “Smart and Smarter,” Forbes, March 18, 2002, pp. 40–41; W. F. Cascio, “Managing a Virtual Workplace,” Academy of Management Executive, August 2000, pp. 81–90; Dess, Rasheed, McLaughlin, and Priem, “The New Corporate Architecture”; H. Chesbrough and D. Teece, “When Is Virtual Virtuous: Organizing for Innovation,” Harvard Business Review, January–February 1996, pp. 65–73; and W. H. Davidow and M. S. Malone, The Virtual Corporation (New York: Harper Collins, 1992).

  39. 39. Q. Hardy, “Bit by Bit, Work Exchange Site Aims to Get Jobs Done,” New York Times Online, November 6, 2011.

  40. 40. M. V. Rafter, “Cultivating a Virtual Culture,” Workforce Management Online, April 5, 2012.

  41. 41. R. E. Miles, C. C. Snow, J. A. Matthews, G. Miles, and H. J. Coleman Jr., “Organizing in the Knowledge Age: Anticipating the Cellular Form,” Academy of Management Executive, November 1997, pp. 7–24; C. Jones, W. Hesterly, and S. Borgatti, “A General Theory of Network Governance: Exchange Conditions and Social Mechanisms,” Academy of Management Review, October 1997, pp. 911–45; R. E. Miles and C. C. Snow, “The New Network Firm: A Spherical Structure Built on Human Investment Philosophy,” Organizational Dynamics, Spring 1995, pp. 5–18; and R. E. Miles and C. C. Snow, “Causes of Failures in Network Organizations,” California Management Review vol. 34, no. 4 (1992), pp. 53–72.

  42. 42. G. Hoetker, “Do Modular Products Lead to Modular Organizations?” Strategic Management Journal, June 2006, pp. 501–18; C. H. Fine, “Are You Modular or Integral?” Strategy & Business, Summer 2005, pp. 44–51; D. A. Ketchen Jr. and G. T. M. Hult, “To Be Modular or Not to Be? Some Answers to the Question,” Academy of Management Executive, May 2002, pp. 166–67; M. A. Schilling, “The Use of Modular Organizational Forms: An Industry-Level Analysis,” Academy of Management Journal, December 2001, pp. 1149–68; D. Lei, M. A. Hitt, and J. D. Goldhar, “Advanced Manufacturing Technology: Organizational Design and Strategic Flexibility,” Organization Studies 17 (1996), pp. 501–23; R. Sanchez and J. Mahoney, “Modularity Flexibility and Knowledge Management in Product and Organization Design,” Strategic Management Journal 17 (1996), pp. 63–76; and R. Sanchez, “Strategic Flexibility in Product Competition,” Strategic Management Journal 16 (1995), pp. 135–59.

  43. 43. C. Hymowitz, “Have Advice, Will Travel,” Wall Street Journal, June 5, 2006, pp. B1+.

  44. 44. S. Reed, A. Reinhardt, and A. Sains, “Saving Ericsson,” BusinessWeek, November 11, 2002, pp. 64–68.

  45. 45. P. Engardio, “The Future of Outsourcing,” BusinessWeek, January 30, 2006, pp. 50–58.

  46. 46. J. Zumbrun, “Is Your Job Routine? If So, It’s Probably Disappearing,” Wall Street Journal Online, April 8, 2015.

  47. 47. C. E. Connelly and D. G. Gallagher, “Emerging Trends in Contingent Work Research,” Journal of Management, November 2004, pp. 959–83.

  48. 48. N. M. Adler, International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, 5th ed. (Cincinnati, OH: South-Western, 2008), p. 62.

  49. 49. Managing Technology in Today's Workplace box based on R. Cheng, “So You Want to Use Your iPhone for Work? How the Smartest Companies Are Letting Employees Use Their Personal Gadgets to Do Their Jobs,” Wall Street Journal, April 25, 2011, pp. R1+; B. Roberts, “Mobile Workforce Management,” HR Magazine, March 2011, pp. 67–70; D. Darlin, “Software That Monitors Your Work, Wherever You Are,” New York Times Online www.nytimesonline.com (April 12, 2009); D. Pauleen and B. Harmer, “Away from the Desk . . . Always,” Wall Street Journal, December 15, 2008, p. R8; J. Marquez, “Connecting a Virtual Workforce,” Workforce Management Online www.workforce.com (September 22, 2008); R. Yu, “Work Away from Work Gets Easier with Technology,” USA Today, November 28, 2006, p. 8B; M. Weinstein, “Going Mobile,” Training, September 2006, pp. 24–29; C. Cobbs, “Technology Helps Boost Multitasking,” Springfield, Missouri News-Leader, June 15, 2006, p. 5B; C. Edwards, “Wherever You Go, You’re on the Job,” BusinessWeek, June 20, 2005, pp. 87–90; and S. E. Ante, “The World Wide Work Space,” BusinessWeek, June 6, 2005, pp. 106–08.

  50. 50. P. Olson, “Tesco’s Landing,” Forbes, June 4, 2007, pp. 116–18; and P. M. Senge, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of Learning Organizations (New York: Doubleday, 1990).

  51. 51. J. Marquez, “Connecting a Virtual Workforce,” Workforce Management Online, February 3, 2009.

  52. 52. J. Simons, “IBM Says No to Home Work,” Wall Street Journal, May 19, 2017, pp. A1+.

  53. 53. M. Conlin, “Home Offices: The New Math,” BusinessWeek, March 9, 2009, pp. 66–68.

  54. 54. Ibid.

  55. 55. Marquez, “Connecting a Virtual Workforce.”

  56. 56. S. Jayson, “Working at Home: Family-Friendly,” USA Today, April 15, 2010, pp. 1A+; T. D. Hecht and N. J. Allen, “A Longitudinal Examination of the Work-Nonwork Boundary Strength Construct,” Journal of Organizational Behavior, October 2009, pp. 839–62; and G. E. Kreiner, E. C. Hollensbe, and M. L. Sheep, “Balancing Borders and Bridges: Negotiating the Work-Home Interface via Boundary Work Tactics,” Academy of Management Journal, August 2009, pp. 704–30.

  57. 57. P. B. Smith and M. F. Peterson, “Demographic Effects on the Use of Vertical Sources of Guidance by Managers in Widely Differing Cultural Contexts,” International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, April 2005, pp. 5–26.

  58. 58. N. Scheiber, “A Find at Gap: Steady Hours Can Help Workers, and Profits,” New York Times online, March 28, 2018; and R. Abrams, “Gap Says It Will Phase Out On-Call Scheduling of Employees,” New York Times Online, August 26, 2015.

  59. 59. J. T. Marquez, “The Future of Flex,” Workforce Management Online, January 2010.

  60. 60. S. Greenhouse, “Work-Sharing May Help Companies Avoid Layoffs,” New York Times Online, June 16, 2009.

  61. 61. R. King, “Meet the Microworkers,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek Online, February 1, 2011; and R. King, “Mechanical Serfdom Is Just That,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek Online, February 1, 2011.

  62. 62. K. Bennhold, “Working (Part-Time) in the 21st Century,” New York Times Online, December 29, 2010; and J. Revell, C. Bigda, and D. Rosato, “The Rise of Freelance Nation,” CNNMoney, cnnmoney.com, June 12, 2009.

  63. 63. Revell, Bigda, and Rosato, “The Rise of Freelance Nation.”

  64. 64. Ibid.

  65. 65. H. G. Jackson, “Flexible Workplaces: The Next Imperative,” HR Magazine, March 2011, p. 8; E. Frauenheim, “Companies Focus Their Attention on Flexibility,” Workforce Management Online, February 2011; P. Davidson, “Companies Do More with Fewer Workers,” USA Today, February 23, 2011, pp. 1B+; M. Rich, “Weighing Costs, Companies Favor Temporary Help,” New York Times Online, December 19, 2010; and P. Davidson, “Temporary Workers Reshape Companies, Jobs,” USA Today, October 13, 2010, pp. 1B+.

  66. 66. Twitter.com, United Airlines, @united, March 26, 2017.

  67. 67. D. Victor and M. Stevens, “United Airlines Passenger Is Dragged from an Overbooked Flight,” New York Times Online, April 10, 2017.

  68. 68. C. Drew, “United Takes Added Steps to Win Back Customers and Avoid More Ugly Events,” New York Times Online, April 27, 2017.

  69. 69. M. Salam, “Security Officers Fired for United Airlines Dragging Episode,” New York Times Online, October 17, 2017.

  70. 70. H. Baskas, “A Couple Headed to Their Wedding Says United Kicked Them Off the Plane,” www.nbcnews.com, April 17, 2017.

  71. 71. L. Stack, “United Airlines Apolo-gizes after Dog Dies in Overhead Compartment,” New York Times Online, March 13, 2018.

  72. 72. A. Hartung, “Why United Airlines Abuses Customers: The Risks of Operational Excellence,” Forbes Online, April 10, 2017.

  73. 73. M. Locker, “Making America Great Again in Space Won’t Just Be a Job for NASA,” Fast Company Online, January 3, 2018; and NASA Strategic Plan 2014, https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/FY2014_NASA_SP_508c.pdf.

  74. 74. S. Silbermann, “How Culture and Regulation Demand New Ways to Sell,” Harvard Business Review, July/August 2012, pp. 104–05; P. Miller and T. Wedell-Wedellsborg, “How to Make an Offer That Managers Can’t Refuse?” IESE Insight, second quarter, no. 9 (2011), pp. 66–67; S. Hernández, “Prove Its Worth,” IESE Insight, second quarter, no. 9 (2011), p. 68; T. Koulopoulos, “Know Thyself,” IESE Insight, second quarter, no. 9 (2011), p. 69; M. Weinstein, “Retrain and Restructure Your Organization,” Training, May 2009, p. 36; J. McGregor, “The Chore Goes Offshore,” BusinessWeek, March 23 & 30, 2009, pp. 50–51; “Pfizer: Making It ‘Leaner, Meaner, More Efficient,’” BusinessWeek Online, March 2, 2009; and A. Cohen, “Scuttling Scut Work,” Fast Company, February 2008, pp. 42–43.

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